TS Inter 1st Year

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 3rd Lesson Science of Plants – Botany to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 3rd Lesson Science of Plants – Botany

→ The study of the plants is called Botany. The word ‘botane’ originated from the Greek word Bouskein (cattle feed).

→ Theophrastus was regarded as “Father of Botany” He wrote a book “de Historia Plantarum”.

→ The period of 16th and 17th centuries is the period of herbalists.

→ Botany emerged as a specific science during the 17th century with the discovery of the cell by Robert Hooke.

→ In 18th century, there was progress in the areas of Taxonomy and Physiology.

→ During 19th century Mendel discovered laws of inheritance. Darwin put forward ‘The Theory of evolution”. Haeckel made ecological studies.

→ Twentieth century witnessed great advances in Genetics, Plant physiology and Embryology.

→ Indian scientist prof. V.S. Rama Das and his students made significant contributions to C4 photosynthesis .

→ ScientistsMe Wodehouse, P.K.K. Nair, C.G.K. Ramanujam developed the Palynology, the study of pollen.

→ Some proposed phylogenetic system of classifications.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 6th Lesson Modes of Reproduction to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 6th Lesson Modes of Reproduction

→ The ability of an organism to produce a new generation of individuals of the same species is called Reproduction.

→ Reproduction can be broadly grouped into asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

→ Sexual reproduction produce new characters in the off spring so that survival advantage is enhanced.

→ Panchanan Maheswari

• Ptmchanan Maheswari is one of the distinguished botanists not only of India but of the entire world.
• He worked on embryological aspects and popularised the me of embryological characters in taxonomy.
• His work on test tube fertilisation and intra – ovarian pollination won world wide acclaim.

→ The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life.

→ Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones similar to itself.

→ The organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for how it reproduces.

→ There are two types of reproduction-Asexual and Sexual methods.

→ In asexual method of reproduction, a single individual is capable of producing offspring.

→ In asexual method, the offsprings produced are not only identical to one another but also exact copies of their parent.

→ In unicellular organisms, asexual reproduction is done by binary fission or : budding.

→ In algae, and fungi asexual reproduction is done by spores.

→ In Bryophytes and Pteridophytes the spores produced are haploid.

→ In higher plants asexual reproduction is done by vegetative propagation.

→ In flowering plants vegetative propagation is done by runner, stolon, sucker, offset, rhizome, corm, tuber, bulb, bulbil, reproductive leaves etc.

→ Plants produced vegetatively or asexually are called clones.

→ Sexual reproduction involves formation of the male and female gametes, either by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex.

→ Offsprings formed by sexual reproduction are not identical to the parents or : among themselves.

→ In plants hormones are responsible for sexual reproduction.

→ Events in sexual reproduction are prefertilisation, fertilisation and post fertilisation.

→ Gametogenesis refers to the process of formation of male and female gametes.

→ The fusion of male and female gametes results in diploid zygote. This is known as syngamy or fertilisation.

→ Embryogenesis refers to the process of development of embryo from tha zygote.

→ In flowering plants after fertilisation ovary develops into fruit and ovules mature into seeds.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 5th Lesson Morphology of Flowering Plants to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 5th Lesson Morphology of Flowering Plants

→ The study and description of external characters of plant organs is called external morphology.

→ Ueforo experimental biology, more specifically, physiology, was established as a part of biology, naturalists described only biology. Hence biology remained as a natural history for a long time.

→ Description became meaningful and helpful in framing research ..questions in physiology or evolutionary biology.

→ Theophrastus is regarded as the”Father of Botany”. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants Historic Plantarum and On the Causes of Plants Causae PlantarumJ constituted the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the middle ages

→ The study of external structure of a plant body is called external morphology.

→ Plante have roots, stem, leaves, flowers and seeds enclosed in fruits.

→ The part of the plant body present below the soil is called root system whereas the plant body present above the soil is called shoot system.

→ Dicot plant have tap root system. Monocot plant have fibrous root system.

→ Root has four regions as root cap, region of meristematic activity, region of elongation and region of maturation.

→ Change in morphological structure of roots in order to perform new functions depending upon the environment are called root modifications.

→ Root modifications are prop roots, stilt roots, respiratory roots, photosynthetic roots, nodular roots, velamen roots and parasitic roots.

→ The permanent changes in the morphological structure of stem in order to perform new function depending upon the environment are called stem modification.

→ Stem modifications are three types. They are aerial stem modification, sub-aerial stem modification and underground stem modification.

→ Stem tendrils, thorns, phylloclades, bulbils are aerial stem modifications.

→ Runners, stolons, suckers, offsets are sub-aerial stem modifications.

→ All sub-aerial stem modifications are useful for vegetative propagation.

→ Leaf is a green flattened structure borne on the stem.

→ He Leaf has four parts – leaf base, leaf stipule, leaf petiole and leaf lamina.

→ In dicot leaves reticulate venation and in monocot leaves parallel venation is present.

→ He The arrangement of leaf on the stem is called phyllotaxy.

→ He Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than photosynthesis. They are called leaf modification.

→ Insectivorous leaves of pitcher plant (Nepenthes) and Dionea (Venus fly trap) are modified leaves to trap insects for their nitrogen requirement.

→ The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence.

→ The two major types of inflorescence are racemose and cymose.

→ When peduncle is unbranched it is called simple inflorescence. When peduncle is branched is called compound inflorescence.

→ Raceme, Corymb and Umbel type of racemose inflorescence are with pedicellate flowers.

→ Spike, Spadix and Head inflorescence are racemose inflorescence with sessile flowers.

→ Cymose inflorescence ends with a flower. Hence it shows limited growth.

→ Solitary cyme, cymule, monochasial cyme, dichasial cyme and polychasial cyme are cymose inflorescence.

→ Verticellaster, Cyathium and Hypanthodium are special type of inflorescence,

→ Flower is a reproductive unit in the angiosperms.

→ Depending upon symmetry, flowers are actinomorphic, zygomorphic and asymmetrical.

→ Dicot plants show tetramerous or pentamerous flowers, Monocot plants show trimerous flowers.

→ The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in the bud condition is known as aestivation.

→ Calyx and corolla are non-essential organ whereas Androecium and Gynoecium are essential organ.

→ Fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plant.

→ Fruits formed without fertilisation are called parthenocarpic fruits.

→ Fruits are three types – Simple, aggregate and compound fruits.

→ Ovules after fertilisation develop into seeds.

→ In dicot seeds two cotyledons are present. In Monocot seed single cotyledon is present.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 2nd Lesson Biological Classification to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 2nd Lesson Biological Classification

→ Biological classification was first done by Aristotle on the basis of simple morphological characters.

→ In Linnaeus time a two kingdom system of classification with Plantae and Animalia was developed that included all plants and animals respectively.

→ R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification based on cell structure, thallus organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.

→ The five kingdoms were named as Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

→ Bacteria are the sole members of the kingdom Monera.

→ Archaebacteria are different type of bacteria as they have a cell wall structure jj which is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions like salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).

→ Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape : the spherical j Coccus, the rod shaped Bacillus, the comma shaped Vibrium, the spiral Spirillum.

→ The cyanobacteria or blue green algae are photosynthetic autotrophs i.e., They can prepare their food as they have chlorophyll.

→ Heterotrophic bacteria do not synthesize their own food but depend on other organisms (parasites) or on dead organic matter (saprophytes) for food.

→ The Mycoplasma are the smallest living cells and can survive without oxygen. They do not have cell wall.

→ A number of antibiotics are produced by actinomycetous members especially the genus streptomyces.

→ Kingdom Protista includes all single celled eukaryotes like Chrysophytes, Diano flagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, Protozoans etc.

→ Protozoans form four groups as Amoeboid protozoans, Flagellated protozoans, Ciliated Protozoans and Sporozoans.

→ Kingdom Fungi shows a great diversity in structure and habitat

→ Basing on the morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies. Fungi is divided into four classes – Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes.

→ Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll containing organisms commonly called plants.

→ Plantae includes Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and

→ Kingdom Animalia is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.

→ The mode of nutrition in these organisms is holozoic.

→ They reproduce mostly by sexual modes.

→ Lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions are not included in the five kingdom system of classification.

→ Carl Woese proposed six kingdom classification. It includes Bacteria,

→ Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 8th Lesson Ecology and Environment to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 8th Lesson Ecology and Environment

→ Ecology deals with the study of organisms and their interrelationships and interactions with the surrounding environment.

→ Ecological adaptations play an important role in speciation.

→ ODUM was an eminent animal ecologist. .

→ A call to the human race, given by the environmentalists in the Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro is “Think Globally and Act Locally”.

→ Population is a group of organisms of the same species, living in a specific area at a specific time.

→ Biome is a large community of plants and animals that occupies a vast region.

→ All the habitable zones on the earth constitute the ecosphere or biosphere.

→ The biosphere comprises all of the Earth’s biomes.

→ Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the environment due to natural causes and human activities.

→ Carbon dioxide is the main pollutant that is leading to global warming.

→ Ganga action plan is now renamed by Government of India as “National River Conservation Project / Plan.”

→ Common water hyacinth (Eichhomia) is the world’s most problematic aquatic weed which is also called Terror of Bengal”.

→ Indian Government passed Environment (Protection) Act in 1986, Water! (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974.

→ Live and Let Live:
Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science, having only become prominent in the second half of the 20* century. More precisely, there is agreement that ecology emerged as a distinct discipline at the turn of the 20* century, and that it gained | public prominence in the 1960s, due to widespread concern for the state of the environment. Nonetheless, ecological thinking at some level has been around for a 1 long time, and the principles of ecology have developed gradually, closely intertwined with the development of other biological disciplines. It is likely that early humans had an ecological understanding of at least those aspects of their environment that enhanced their survival. One of the first ecologists whose writings survive may have been Aristotle or perhaps his student, Theophrastus, both of whom had interest in many species of animals. Theophrastus described interrelationships between animals and their environment as early as the 4th century BC.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 7th Lesson Type Study of Periplaneta Americana to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 7th Lesson Type Study of Periplaneta Americana

→ Cockroach belongs to the phylum Arthropoda and the class Insecta.

→ Group Insects is the largest class of animals in the Kingdom – Animalia. Insects are distinguished from other arthropods in possessing three tagmata in the body and three pairs of legs.

→ The study of insects is called Entomology.

→ Cockroach also exhibits ail the characteristic features of the class Insecta. Cockroach is a convenient specimen, for dissection and demonstration.

→ Cockroach is a common household pest that contaminates our food with its excreta (cockroach is kitchen pest).

→ Cockroaches are mostly the inhabitants of the tropical countries.

→ A few species are found in the temperate regions.

→ The two common species of cockroaches found in India are : Blatta orientals and Periplaneta americana.

→ William Kirby (1759-1850)
William Kirby was an English entomologist, an original member of the Linnean Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was famous for his enormous work in Entomology. He is considered the “Founder of Entomology”.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 6th Lesson Biology in Human Welfare to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 6th Lesson Biology in Human Welfare

→ At least one-third of all animal species are estimated to be parasites according to one estimation.

→ More than 130 parasites are known to invade humans as hosts.

→ Parasitism is described as a ‘Silent Epidemic’.

→ Most parasites tend to disturb the immunological system.

→ Diseases such as malaria, polio, plague, dengue, amoebiasis, filariasis, taeniasis . are more common in the tropical countries.

→ Due to efforts of WHO, some diseases which killed millions in the past, are almost a part of history now.

→ Malaria is still evading control.

→ In course of evolution, certain prokaryotic organisms entered the bodies of eukaryotes and remained in them for ever.

→ Dr. Yellapragada Subbarao is regarded as Wonder Man of Miracle Drugs.

→ The discovery of antibiotics, synthetic or plant derived drugs, anaesthetics, diagnostic procedures, etc., have changed the medical practice on one hand and the human health on the other hand.

→ Recent surveys and statistics show that the use of tobacco, drugs and alcohol has been on the rise especially among the youth.

→ Proper education and guidance would enable the youth to safeguard themselves against these dangerous habits and follow healthy life styles.

→ Any addict requires counselling and medical help to get rid of the habit.

→ Dr. Yellapragada Subbarao (1895-1948):
Dr. Yellapragada Subbarao was an Indian biochemist who discovered the function of adenosine triphosphate as an energy’ source in the cell, and developed methotrexate for the treatment of cancer.
Most of his career was spent in the United States. Despite his isolation of ATP, Subbarao was denied tenure at Harvard and remained without a green card throughout his life, though he would lead some of America’s most important medical research during World War II. He was remembered as a ‘Wonder-man of Miracle Drugs’.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 5th Lesson Locomotion and Reproduction in Protozoa to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 5th Lesson Locomotion and Reproduction in Protozoa

→ Locomotion is defined as the voluntary movement of an organism from one place to another either in search of food or shelter or mate or to escape from the predators.

→ Locomotory structures may also be used for the collection of food. (eg:Amoeba & Paramoecium use pseudopodia and cilia for the collection of food also).

→ “All locomotions are movements, but all movements are not locomotions.

→ The method of locomotion performed by animals varies with their habitats and the demand of the situation.

→ Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones similar to itself.

→ There is a cycle of birth, growth and death.

→ Reproduction enables the continuity of the species, generation after generation.

→ The organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for its mode of reproduction.

→ Based on the participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, it is of two types, asexual and sexual.

→ Giardia Lamblia:
Giardia Lamblia (synonymous with Giardia intestinalis, Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces via binary fission.
Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes. If the organism is split and stained, it has a very characteristic pattern that resembles a familiar “smiley face” symbol. Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries; contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds where intensive grazing occurs.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 1st Lesson The Living World to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes 1st Lesson The Living World

→ The Study of living organisms is called “Biology”.

→ In Greek language “Bios” means life and “logos” means discourse.

→ The living world comprises an amazing diversity of living organisms.

→ From the beginning human beings started observing the living organisms and inanimate matter around them.

→ A common feature of all forms of inanimate and animate objects was the sense of awe or fear that they evoked.

→All living organisms present are related to each other and to all organisms that ever lived on this earth. This led to cultural movements for conservation of biodiversity.

→Ernst Mayr, the Harvard University evolutionary biologist who has been called “The Darwin of the 20th century” was one of the 100 greatest scientists of all limes. He almost single handedly made the origin of species diversity the central question of evolutionary biology that it is today.

→ The organisms, which exhibited the distinctive characteristics like growth, reproduction, metabolism, irritability etc., are known as living organisms.

→ Living organisms grow by means of cell division.

→ The defining features of life forms are metabolism, consciousness, interactions and genetic material.

→ On the basis of characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different categories. This type of classification is called taxonomy.

→ Classification involves a system order of steps in which each.step represents category. It is called the taxonomic category and all the categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.

→ Unit of classification is termed as Taxon.

→ There are millions of plants and animals in the world. Each different kind of plant, animal or organism represents a species. This refers to biodiversity.

→ To standardise the naming of all the living organisms there is a process called Nomenclature.

→ In nomenclature, each name has two components, the generic name and species name.

→ Taxonomical studies of all known organisms have led to the development of common categories such as kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus and species. .

→ Species is a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities.

→ Taxonomic studies of various species of plants, animals and other organisms are useful in agriculture, forestry, industry and in general, in knowing our bio – resources and their diversity.

→ Taxonomic studies require correct classification and identification of organisms.

→ Taxonomic aids help in correct classification and identification of organisms.

→ They are herbarium, botanical gardens and museums.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 4th Lesson Animal Diversity-II: Phylum Chordata to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 4th Lesson Animal Diversity-II: Phylum Chordata

→ The evolution of the chordates dates back to more than half a billion years.

→ Chordates are enterocoelous deuterostomes and are closely related to invertebrate group Echinodermata.

→ In higher chordates dorsal tubular nerve cord is differentiated into anterior brain and posterior spinal cord.

→ In higher chordates unique part notochord is modified (replaced) into vertebral column.

→ Pharyngeal gill slits and post-anal tail are other distinguishing features of vertebrates.

→ Urochordates and cephalochordates are the non-vertebrate chordates.

→ Major evolutionary step of chordates is appearance of ‘Jaws’.

→ Domination of the ‘Jawed fishes’ is during the Devonian period.

→ The amphibians invaded land, but they remained an imperfect group. They failed to adapt completely to terrestrial life.

→ The Golden age of Reptiles is Mesozoic era.

→ Cleidoic (shelled) eggs first time appeared in the group Reptiles.

→ Reptiles gave rise to two major groups – the Aves and the Mammalia .

→ Kidneys evolved from the primitive ‘pronephros’ to ‘mesonephros’.

→ The origin of’amnion’ and other foetal membranes in the reptiles, air sacs, feathers of birds, the hair, mammary glands and chorio – allantoic placenta of mammals are the major Bioarchitectural wonders through the course of evolution.

→ There was a tremendous ‘genetic transformation’ making man unique.

→ The gene FOX P2 is believed to play a key role in human language expression.

→ Alfred Sherwood Romer (1894-1973):

• Alfred Sherwood Romer was an American paleontologist and comparative anatomist and a specialist in vertebrate evolution.
• Alfred Romer was born in White Plains, New York, and studied at Amherst College and Columbia University, graduating with a doctorate in zoology in 1921. Romer joined the department of geology and paleontology at the University of Chicago as an associate professor in 1923.
• He was an active researcher and teacher. His collecting program added important Paleozoic specimens to the Walker Museum of Paleontology.
• In 1934 he was appointed professor of biology at Harvard University. In 1946, he also became direc tor of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1954 Romer was awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the Academy’s Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal in 1956.

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 3rd Lesson Animal Diversity-I: Invertebrate Phyla to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 3rd Lesson Animal Diversity-I: Invertebrate Phyla

→ Animalia (Metazoa) includes multi-cellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotes with specific bauplans.

→ Collagen is the abundant protein and unique to the Kingdom Animalia.

→ Most simple multi-cellular organisms are the sponges which show cellular level of organisation.

→ The diploblastic animals like cnidarians and ctenophores show tissue level of organisation. They possess ectoderm and endoderm.

→ In triploblastic animals in addition to ectoderm and endoderm a third germinal layer the mesoderm appears in between the above two layers.

→ This upgrades tissue level organisation to ‘organ’ and ‘organ system’ level of organisation.

→ The first tube within a tube body organisation arose with the evolution of the Nematoda.

→ Evolution of tissues, development of bilateral symmetny and origin of the body cavity are successively considered the first, second and the third key transitions.

→ In this unit, the entire history of evolution of organisation in the animal kingdom from simple to more complex levels is explained.

→ Animals are broadly classified into invertebrates and vertebrates.

→ The animals which lack a notochord are called invertebrates.

→ Libbie Henrietta Hyman was the pioneer in the field of systematics of the invertebrates.

→ The invertebrates are characterized by the absence of vertebral column (back bone) and presence of solid, ventral ganglionated nerve cord.

→ Libbie Henrietta Hyman (1888-1969)
L.H. Hyman is a very big name in ‘Invertebrate Zoology’. She was born of Jewish immigrants in Des Moines, Iowa. She majored in zoology and graduated in 1910 with a Bachelors of Science.
Hyman received her Ph. D. in 1915, when she was twenty-six years old, for a dissertation entitled, “An Analysis of the Process of Regeneration in Certain Microdrilous Oligochaetes.’’
She was made an honorary research associate of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, given an office, and although unsalaried, published the first volume of The Invertebrates in 1940.
Hyman’s recognition as an outstanding scholar began with publication of her first invertebrate volume. She subsequently received many honors and recognitions, including membership in the National Academy of Sciences. In addition to her many books and laboratory manuals, Hyman published 135 scientific papers.
“I now retire from the field, satisfied that / have accomplished my original purpose – to stimulate the study of invertebrates.”

Here students can locate TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 2nd Lesson Structural Organisation in Animals to prepare for their exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes 2nd Lesson Structural Organisation in Animals

→ The ’tissue grade of organisation’ evolved for the first time in the cnidarians.

→ Multicellular animals without cell correlation and division of labour is seen in PORIFERA (Parazoans)

→ Tissues are Jacks of all trades and masters of none.

→ Tissues are essentially of 4 types – epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous.

→ Epithelial tissues cover the outer surfaces / free surfaces of the body organs and act as’physical barriers’.

→ Connective tissues help in binding and supporting other tissues.

→ A connective tissue has diffuse cells interspersed by ‘extracellular matrix’ made up of different types of fibres.

→ Various types of fibres are formed by cells called ‘fibroblasts’.

→ Muscular tissues are concerned with various types of movements in the body,

→ Muscles contain proteins such as ‘actin’ and ‘myosin’, which together cause contraction.

→ Muscles are 3 types – Skeletal, cardiac and smooth.

→ Skeletal and cardiac muscles are of the ‘striated’ type and smooth muscles are (also called visceral muscles) unstriated muscles.

→ Nervous tissue senses ‘stimuli’ and conducts (transmits) them in the form of’ nerve impulses from one part of the body to another.

→ Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells called ‘Neurons’.

→ Nervous tissue also contains various types of ‘glial cells’.

→ Nervous tissue is chiefly involved in bringing about co-ordination between the | activities of various body parts.

→ There are five levels of organisation. They are.

• Protoplasmic level
• Cellular level of organisation
• Tissue level of organisation
• Organ level of organisation :
• Organ-system level of organisation.

→ Marie Frangois Xavier Bichat (1771-1802):
Marie Frangois Xavier Bichat was the first person to look beyond the recognizable organ systems and suggest that each part of the body was composed of various kinds of tissues. He is considered the “father of modern histology and pathology.”

Bichat was born in Thoirette, France, in 1771, the son of a physician. In Lyons, Bichat studied mathematics and physical science before settling on the study of anatomy.

Later Bichat took his place in the medical community and continued writing, lecturing, and doing research. Using only a hand-lens, he identified 21 different kinds of tissue, such as fibrous, glandular, or mucus tissue, in the body. Bichat also studied the effects of different diseases and therapeutic agents on different tissues.
Bichat was well known as a brilliant teacher during his life. In 1800 he was appointed to serve as secretary of a medical advisory board established by the French government. By the age of 31 he had published three well-received books on tissues, general anatomy, and the physiological aspects of life and death. Today he is remembered as a physician and teacher who advanced the understanding of the connection between disease and physical changes in the body.