TS Inter 1st Year Archives - Page 2 of 18

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 4 Political Concepts

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 4th Lesson Political Concepts Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 4th Lesson Political Concepts

1. Law

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Law-Explain its various sources.
(or)
2. What is meant by law? Discuss the various features of law.
Answer:
Introduction :
Law is an important concept in the study of political science. It is an important feature of modern state. Law regulates the external behaviour of individuals. It determines and regulates the nature of individual’s activities.

Individual’s life, social order, political system, economic transactions, cultural activities etc., remain paralysed in the absence of laws.

It is due to the deterioration of legal system that public life, governmental organisations and state activities were affected to a great extent in some contemporary states. Afghanistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Somalia, Soviet Union, Ukraine, Yemen, Palestine etc., are some examples of such states.

Meaning :
The term “Law” is derived from the Teutonic (German) word “Lag” which means “To Lay”, “To Set” or something fixed.

The second dimension is that the word “Law” had its roots in the Latin words “Jus and Jungere” which means bond or Tie.

Definitions :
Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below :

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of rights and obligations which the state enforces”. – T.H. Green
“Law is a general rule of external action enforced by the sovereign political authority”. – T.E. Holland
“Law is a body of rules which the state recognises and applies in the administration of Justice”. – John Salmond

Sources of Law :
Law is a product of history. It has passed through various stages of development. Several elements have contributed to its evolution. In Legal sense, the state is the main source of law. Professor T.E. Holland mentioned six sources of Law. They are

Customs
Religion
Judicial Decisions
Scientific Commentaries
Equity and
Legislature.

1) Customs, Practices and Traditions :
These are one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no laws in written form. All disputes were settled in accor-dance with social customs and traditions. Customs regulated the social life in the early societies. Customs and traditions cannot be laws in political sense. But, when the State recognises certain traditions, they in turn become laws. For example, the laws relating to marriage, divorce etc., found in our Country are based on traditions, the common law of England.

2) Religion :
In ancient times customary laws and religious laws were intermixed. The religious teachers enjoyed unlimited powers in those times. Their decisions were treated on par with laws. The primitive men believed that the judgements of the religious teachers had divine sanction. The ancient Roman laws were merely the religious laws. The Hindu and Muslim laws derived inspiration mainly from religion.

3) Judicial Decisions/Adjudication/Judgement of the Courts :
The judgements of the judges also serve as a source of law. Generally, judges interpret laws, apply them to particular cases and deliver judgements. Their judgements become precedents and are usually followed by other judges in similar cases. In course of time such judgements acquire the status of law. In this way judges add to the law of the country. There are many instances that new laws have evolved by way of interpretation. Many of the laws in Britain, America and India have originated from the judgements of the Judges of the respective countries.

4) Scientific Commentaries :
These are the works of great Jurists. The views of the Jurists expressed in their works also act as and important source of law. The Jurists collect and compare the past customs and laws with those of the present. While doing so, they point out the defects in the existing laws and suggest ways for their improvement. The views of the Jurists however, do not become laws. But, they become laws when they are recognised by the courts. For example, the writings of Coke and Black Stone in the U.K. are held in high esteem. The same is the position of Story and Kent in America and the Vignaneswara and Apararka in India.

5) Equity :
Equity means fairness or justice. It is also a kind of Judge – made law. It is an informal method of making a new law or altering an old law to new conditions. Sometimes, the courts may be confronted with the disputes about which the law is silent. Under such situation, the Judge will give relief to the aggrieved party by using principles of social justice and humanism common sense. In course of time, they acquire the status of law. In equity, Judge is adding to the law what is missing therein and creating a new one.

6) Legislature :
This is the most important and direct source of law. Most of the laws now-a-days are made by the legislatures. Hence, legislatures are regarded as “Law-Making Factories”. They frame new laws, amend the existing laws and if necessary, abolish old laws. The other sources of law have been replaced by the legislature. This, however, does not mean that they have no role to play in influencing laws. While framing laws, the legislators bear in mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions etc.

Question 3.
Explain different kinds of law.
Answer:
Many political philosophers gave their classifications on laws in different ways. Of them the classification given by Maclver is mentioned worthy which can be explained in the following points.
1. Natural Law :
Natural law is also known as divine law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human agency. It is considered as the gift of nature, based on metaphysical power. It refers to the use of reason to analyse human nature. It is written in the heart of human beings by the finger of God.

2. Positive Law :
Positive law is created by the human agency. It is also known as political law. It is framed on the basis of the existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the Sovereign Political Authority Violation of positive law leads to punishment.

3. Constitutional Law :
It is a basic law of any state. It defines the political system. All the basic principles of administration are included in this type. All other laws in the State are subservient to constitutional law. It is framed by the constituent assembly.

4. Ordinary Law :
It determines the relation between the state, administration and people. These laws are framed by a group of Officials authorised by law.

5. Public Law :
It regulates the relation between people and state. These laws are formulated by state for society.

6. Private Law :
It regulates the relation between citizens. It protects the rights of citizens. It also called civil law.

7. Administrative Law :
It regulates the administrative relations between the authori-ties and people. Administrative law brings discipline among the personnel in the government. Now it is implementing in France and India.

8. General Law :
It deals with the private affairs of individual in relation to the State. It covers the laws relating to Marriage, Divorce, Contract etc.

9. Statutory Law :
Statutory law is the greater part of modem law. It is enacted by the legislature of a State for the day to day administration.,

10. Common Law :
Common law is a customary law. It is a product of Customs and traditions which are popular among the people. The courts accept common law as a part of the legal system.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Law and mention the features of law.
Answer:
Law is an important concept in the study of political science. It is an important feature of modern state. Law regulates the external behaviour of individuals.

Meaning :
The term “Law” is derived from the Teutonic word “Lag” which means something fixed.

Features of Law :
The following are some important features of law.

Law comprises some rules and regulations which are approved by the sovereign.
It is enforced by the state. It is valid because it is sanctioned by the State.
It is definite, precise and universal.
It reflects the will of the people.
Any violation of law leads to punishment.
Laws are compulsory and cohesive in nature.
Law aims at securing and promoting the individual and general welfare.
Law is dynamic as it goes on changing according to the needs of the people.

Question 2.
Discuss any four kinds of Law.
Answer:
1. Natural Law :
Natural law is also known as divine law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human agency. It is considered as trie gift of nature, based on metaphysical power. It refers to the use of reason to analyse human nature. It is written in the heart of human beings by the finger of God.

2. Positive Law :
Positive law is created by the human agency. It is also known as political law. It is.framed on the basis of the existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the Sovereign Political Authority. Violation of positive law leads to punishment.

4. Ordinary Law :
It determines the relation between the State, Administration and people. These laws are framed by a group of officials authorised by law.

Question 3.
Write about any three sources of Law.
Answer:
Definitions :
The English word ‘Law’ originates from the ancient Teutonic word ‘Lag’ which means “something that lies fixed or uniform”. Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below :

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of rights and obligations which the state enforces”.- T.H. Green

Sources of Law:
1) Customs, Practices and Traditions :
These are one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no laws in written form. All disputes were settled in accordance with social custoins and traditions. Customs regulated the social life in the early societies. Customs and traditions cannot be laws in political sense. But, when the State recognises certain traditions, they in turn become laws.
Ex : The laws relating to marriage, divorce etc., found in our country are based on traditions, the common law of England.

3) Judicial Decisions / Adjudication / Judgement of the Courts :
The judgements of the judges also serve as a source of law. Generally, judges interpret laws, apply them to particular cases and deliver judgements. Their judgements become precedents and are usually followed by other judges in, similar cases. In course of time such judgements acquire the status of law. In this way judges add to the law of the country. There are many instances that new laws have evolved by way of interpretation. Many of the laws in Britain, America and India have originated from the judgements of the Judges of the respective countries.

Question 4.
What is “Rule of Law”? Explain.
Answer:
Rule of law is a unique feature of British Constitution. It was first originated in England. Later many countries like India and the United States of America have adopted this feature. Rule of law is purely based on the principle of general law. It denotes that law should be general in form. It should be uniformly applicable to all the citizens living in a state. There should not be different types of law for various sections of the community. In other words the government must treat all the citizens equally as per the law. The governance and administration in a particular state should be carried on in accordance with the laws.

The main objective of Rule of Law is that government should not act arbitrarily. It should conduct and implement proper procedures as authorised by the legislature. Any form of violation of law should be punished in accordance with the procedures. Equality before law implies equal subjection of all classes – including the officials – to ordinary law of the land, administered by ordinary law courts.

Rule of Law is unique feature in England. As the constitution of Britain is unwritten and there is no provision of constitutional guarantee of the rights of the citizens. The pro-tection of the rights of the citizens in Britain is provided in their ordinary law in the form of ‘Rule of Law’. This is the foundation of their constitutional system.

However, rule of law was subjected to various limitations in view of several changes which have taken place in socio-economic fields. The scope of this concept is gradually shrinking owing to the over burdening of legislative work with enormous functions. On the whole, the cardinal virtue of Rule Of Law is that “All are equal before law and no one must arbitrarily be punished” constitutes the core value of any democratic system in the world.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the origin of the term “Law”.
Answer:
The term “LAW” is derived from the Teutonic route (German) “Lag” which means “To Lay”, “To Set” or something fixed. The second dimension is that the word “Law” had its roots in the Latin words “Jus and Jungere” which mean bond or tie.

Question 2.
Write any two definitions of Law.
Answer:
Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below.

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of rights and obligations which the state enforces”. – T.H. Green

Question 3.
What are the features of Law?
Answer:
The following are some important features of law :

It is enforced by the State.
It is definite, precise and universal.
It reflects the will of the people.
Laws are compulsory and cohesive in nature.
Any violation of law leads to punishment.

Question 4.
Define the term “Rule of Law”.
Answer:
Rule of Law is an important type of administration of justice. It originated in England. It implies :

Legal Equality : All are equal before law.
No Arbitrary Action : Punishment is given only when an existing law is violated.
No Special Rights : No individual is above law and law does not recognise any special privileges.

Question 5.
What is positive Law?
Answer:
Positive Law: Positive law is created by the human agency. It is also known as political law. It is framed on the basis of the existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the Sovereign Political Authority. Violation of positive law leads to punishment.

Positive law is further classified into two categories. A) National Law and B) International Law.

Question 6.
What do you mean by Administrative Law?
Answer:
Administrative law plays an important role in the smooth functioning of administration. It regulates the administrative relations between the authorities and people. It helps the government to bring reforms in the sphere of development and welfare programmes. Administrative law brings discipline among the personnel in the government. Now it is implementing in France and India.

Question 7.
Write any two sources of Law.
Answer:
Professor T.E. Holland mentioned six sources of law. They are

Customs
Religion
Judicial decisions
Scientific commentaries
Equity and
Legislature:

Question 8.
What is Constitutional Law?
Answer:
The basic law according to which the government in a state is conducted is called constitutional law. It defines the political system. It is usually prepared by a body known as constituent assembly, formed only for that purpose. All other laws in the State are subordinate to this law. It also contains fundamental rights and fundamental duties.

Question 9.
What do you know about common law?
Answer:
Common law is a customary law. It is a product of customs and traditions which are popular among the people. The courts accept common law as a part of the legal system. Common law in un-written in form but is regarded as equal to statute laws in England.

Question 10.
Define Public Law.
Answer:
Public law regulates the relations between state and individuals. It explains the basic structure and functions of the state. It covers the basic rights of the individuals against the interference of the State. It must be followed by the citizens. Its violation leads to punishment.

Question 11.
Explain what is unique about British constitution.
Answer:
Rule of law is a unique feature of British Constitution. It was first originated in En- ‘ gland. Later many countries like India and the United States of America have adopted this feature.

Question 12.
What do you mean by the term Equity?
Answer:
Equity means fairness or justice. It is also a kind of Jude – Made law. It is an informal method of making a new law or altering an old law to new conditions. Sometimes, the courts may be confronted with the disputes about which the law is silent. Under such situation, the Judge will give relief to the aggrieved party by using principles of social justice and humanism common sense. In course of time, they acquire the status of law. In equity Judge is adding to the law what is missing therein and creating a new one.

Question 13.
What are the Scientific Commentaries?
Answer:
These are the works of great Jurists. The views of the Jurists expressed in their works also act as an important source of law. The Jurists collect and compare the past customs and laws with those of the present. While doing so, they point out the defects in the existing laws and suggest ways for their improvement. The views of the Jurists however, do not become laws. But, they become laws when they are recognised by the courts. Ex : The writings of Coke and Black Stone in the U.K. are held in high esteem. The same is the position of Story and Kent in America and the Vignaneswara and Apararka in India.

Question 14.
Explain the legislature as the source of law.
Answer:
This is the most important and direct source of law. Most of the laws now-a-days are made by the legislatures. Hence, legislatures are regarded as “Law-making Factories”. They frame new laws, amend the existing laws and if necessary, abolish old laws. The other sources of law have been replaced by the legislature. This, however, does not mean that they have no role to play influencing laws. While framing laws, the legislators bear in mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions etc.

Question 15.
‘Rule of Law’ in the Constitution of India.
Answer:
Rule of law is purely based on the principle of general law. It denotes that law should be general in form. It should be uniformly applicable to all the citizens living in a state. There should not be different types of law for various sections of the community.

2. Liberty

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Liberty and describe various types of Liberty.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning :
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definitions :
Liberty is defined in many ways by different political thinkers. Some of them are cited below :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedom of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – TH. Green
“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves”. – H.J. Laski

Types of Liberty :
Liberty is of different types. Some of them may be described in the following :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty
National liberty.

1. Natural liberty :
Natural liberty is understood as uncontrolled freedom or absolute freedom. It is believed that natural liberty existed in the pre-social and pre-state human life. According to this concept there were no rules and regulations except the laws of nature in the past. All persons were free to do anything according to their will arid capacity. But this type of liberty is not possible in civilised society, since liberty is a social condition. True liberty does not inconvenience others. Liberty is not a licence. Natural liberty is equal to anarchy. The weak cannot enjoy liberty without law. Some writers imagined that this kind of liberty existed before the origin of state.

2. Civil liberty :
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It relates to the individual’s freedom in his life as a member of the social organisation. It is enjoyed by the individuals in the society. Civil liberty is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and survival of human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honorable and civilised life in the state. So it is a must to every one. The state recognises the various freedoms of individuals. In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”. The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work C) Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

3. Economic liberty :
Economic liberty means the right of everyone to earn his livelihood. Laski described economic liberty as the security and opportunity to find reasonable significance in earning one’s daily bread. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and fear, hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. Economic liberty denotes freedom from want or insecurity of economic nature. Without economic liberty democracy is meaningless. It will also be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

4. Political liberty :
Political liberty facilitates the citizens to take part in the political affairs of the state. Laski regarded political liberty as the power to be-active in the affairs of the state. Gilchrist considered that political liberty is synonymous with democracy. Leacock described political liberty as constitutional liberty or liberty to choose one’s own government. Political liberty is confined to the citizens alone. It is positive in nature. Political liberty provides several rights in political matters. These include (i) right to vote, (ii) right to contest as candidates in elections, (iii) right to hold public office, (iv) right to criticism etc. Laski emphasised that political liberty becomes real when there prevails (i) education (ii) honest and impartial press etc. Political liberty will be realized only in a democratic system.

5. National liberty :
National liberty implies the freedom and independence of the state. It also denotes the sovereignty of the state. Every state enjoys this liberty and remains free from the political domination of other states. This liberty is essential for the progress of nation in all spheres. It was manifested in several countries since ancient period. Many countries made efforts for securing this type of liberty. The Greeks fought a war of independence against the Turks. Similarly the Indian masses under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi waged a non-violent struggle to secure national freedom from the British rule. National liberty is very valuable. Great leaders like Thomas Jefferson emphasised the significance of national liberty.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Liberty? What are the safeguards of Liberty?
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning :
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ” LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definition :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – T.H. Green

Safeguards of liberty :
Liberty is the most cherished ideal of human beings. Hence, it must be safeguarded in the larger interest of the society and state. In this context, the following safeguards of liberty are worth mentioning.

1. Democratic rule :
Democratic rule is considered as a heaven to liberty. Liberty flourishes only in a democratic state. The reason is that democratic state extends protection to individual’s liberties through various laws. It creates a conducive atmosphere for the individuals to enjoy their liberties freely and impartially. It makes the people to participate in the government process directly or indirectly. It makes the people to participate in the governmental process directly or indirectly. It makes the government answerable to the people. It allows the people the right to change the government through public opinion or ballot when the government acts improperly.

2. Written and rigid constitution :
A written and rigid constitution is considered the most important safeguard of individual liberty. Such a constitution incorporates the various freedoms of individuals in several provisions. It acts as a custodian of people’s rights and liberties. It demarcates the spheres of governmental activity. It mentions about the various measures to be taken in case of people’s freedoms are infringed or confiscated by others including governmental authorities. It also imposes restraints on the political parties by not allowing them to amend the constitutional provisions for furthering their partisan interests.

3. Independent judiciary :
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Prof. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

4. Rule of law :
Rule of law is another safeguard of liberty. It is prevalent in many states like Britan, India,‘United States etc. Rule of law safeguards individual liberties in three ways. Firstly, it treats all individuals as equal. Secondly, it makes arrangement for the application and enforcement of uniform laws throughout the state. Thirdly, it exercises restraints on the executive against the use of arbitrary powers.

5. Fundamental rights :
Provision of fundamental rights will safeguard rights to a great extent. Citizens enjoy their liberties without restraints when these rights are enshrined in the constitution. Fundamental rights enable the citizens to develop their talents and realise their personality in various walks of life.

6. Economic equality :
Economic equality too acts as an important safeguard of individual liberties. It implies provision of adequate conditions for the people to come out of the evil effects of hunger, poverty, and unemployment etc. Liberty becomes real when there exists economic equality Economic equality presupposes economic justice. It is guaranteed by the state. Absence of glaring inequalities is a pre-condition of safeguarding liberty.

7. Decentralization of powers :
Liberty will be better safeguard through decentralisa-tion of powers. Individuals could enjoy their liberties when the country is free from the centralization of governmental powers and authority. When the powers of the government are allocated among the union, state, and local governments, there arises no scope for despotism arid infringement of individual liberties.

8. Freedom of press :
Some regarded freedom of press as a safeguard of individual liberty. Individuals could enjoy their liberties when the various agencies of press and other- media have autonomy in their functioning. The press will be able to serve as an important agent for creating, consolidating and expressing public opinion. It, through its impartial editorials and honest presentation of news and views, will be able to safeguard individual liberties.

9. Strong opposition :
A strong opposition is a necessary condition for promoting individual liberty. The opposition will act as a watchdog of individual liberty. Whenever the party in power or persons at higher levels of government try to subvert or circumscribe the freedoms of individuals by their oppressive and despotic acts and activities through legislation and execution, the opposition will strongly resist such attempts. It, by moving a no-confidence motion in the last resort, will uphold the liberties of the individuals.

10. Eternal vigilance :
The best safeguard to liberty is the spirit of the people. It is rightly said, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty”. People must be ready to fight for their liberty. They should- have the courage even to rebel against the government whenever their liberty is curbed by it. In the words of Laski, “It is the proud spirit of the citizens, that is their most real safeguard”.

Question 3.
Explain the relationship between Liberty and Law.
Answer:
Law and Liberty are the two fundamental concepts in political science. These two concepts are interdependent. There is no unanimity of opinion among political philosophers in regard to the relation between Law and Liberty.

There are two different schools which gave contradictory opinions. One school of thought believed that Law and Liberty are antithetical to each other. The other school of thought believed that Law and Liberty are inter-related to each other. Let us explain the two versions.

i) Law. and Liberty are Antithetical :
Individualists like J.S.Mill, Herbert Spencer, David Ricardo, Adam Smith believed that law always restricts the activities of human beings. The state is the principal agency which destroys individual’s liberties. It will not allow the citizens to take active part in the affairs of state and Government. Similarly, it becomes a hurdle in performing the economic activities of the nation. The recent liberalised economic policies in many countries changed the pace of their economies. These policies enabled the people to freely participate in economic activities. Therefore, individualists believed that state is a necessary evil institution. They stated that the government is the best which governs the least. Therefore, law and liberty are antithetical to each other.

ii) Law and Liberty are Complementary :
The socialists and communists believed that Law and Liberty are complementary to each other. They regarded the state as a Welfare agency. Law imposes restrictions essential for the social welfare. It is a fact that the capitalist class exploited the working class. The state shall eradicate the evils of exploitation by making necessary laws.

The idealists believed that state is a Moral Agency. The state represents the general will of the community. Individuals will be free when they obey the laws of the state. Moussolini gave a slogan “Nothing against the State”. Law always protects the interests of the people. Therefore, both the concepts of Law and Liberty are complementary to each other.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Liberty arid describe any three types of Liberty.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning :
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restrictions. .

Definitions :
Liberty is defined in many ways by different political thinker. Some of them are cited below :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedofri of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – TH. Green
“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves”. – HJ. Laski

Types of Liberty: Liberty is of different types. Some of them may be described in the following :

Natural liberty,
Civil liberty,
Economic liberty,
Political liberty
National liberty.

1. Natural liberty :
Natural liberty is understood as uncontrolled freedom or absolute freedom. It is believed that natural liberty existed in the pre-social and pre-state human life. According to this concept there were no rules and regulations except the laws of nature in the past. All persons were free to do anything according to their will and capacity. But this type of liberty is not possible in civilised society, since liberty is a social condition. True liberty does not inconvenience others. Liberty is not a licence. Natural liberty is equal to anarchy. The weak cannot enjoy liberty without law. Some writers imagined that this kind of liberty existed before the origin of state.

In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”. The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. .Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work Q Right to Property D) Right, to Religion E) Right to 1 Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

3. Economic liberty :
Economic liberty means the right of every one to’ earn his livelihood. Laski described economic liberty as the security and opportunity to find reasonable significance in earning one’s.daily bread. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and fear, hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. Economic liberty denotes freedom from want or insecurity of economic nature. Without economic liberty democracy is meaningless. It will.also be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure.
Giving representation to, the workers in the management of the industries.

Question 2.
Describe the evolution of the concept of Liberty.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning :
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definitions :
Liberty is defined in many ways by different political thinkers. Some of them are cited below :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedom of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – TH. Green
“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves”. – H.J. Laski

Types of Liberty :
Liberty is of different types. Some of them may be described in the following :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty
National liberty.

2. Civil liberty :
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It relates to the individual’s freedom in his life as a member of the social organisation. It is enjoyed by the individuals in the society. Civil liberty is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and survival of human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the state. So it is a must to every one. The state recognises the various freedoms of individuals. In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”. The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work C) Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

Question 3.
Explain about any three safeguards of Liberty.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality.

It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning: The term liberty is derived from the Latin word” LIBER” which means free from restrictions. .

Definition :
1) “Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seely
2) “Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. -T.H. Green

1. Democratic rule :
Democratic rule is considered as a heaven to liberty. Liberty flourishes only in a democratic state. The reason is that democratic state extends protection to individual’s liberties through various laws.. It creates a conducive atmosphere for the individuals to enjoy their liberties freely and impartially. It makes the people to participate in the government process directly or indirectly. It makes the people to participate in the governmental process directly or indirectly. It makes the government answerable to the people. It allows the people the right to change the government through public opinion or ballot when the government acts improperly.

3. Independent judiciary :
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Pro. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

Question 4.
What are the. characteristics of Liberty?
Answer:
Meaning :
The term Liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restraints.

Definition :
“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seely

Characteristics of Liberty :
The. following are the important characteristics of Liberty.

Liberty is a dynamic concept. Its interpretation varies according to time, place and wishes of the people.
Liberty always opposes political subjugation, imprisonment and slavery.
It always aims at realizing the aspirations of the individuals.
Liberty always means absence of irrational restraints and presence of favourable conditions.
It is the product of rights.
It is essential for the realization of human personalities.
It is found only in democratic states.
It is manifest in the form of rights.
It does not mean license to do whatever a person wants. It is always subject to limitations.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It relates to the individual’s freedom in his life as a member of the social organisation. It is enjoyed by the individuals in the society. Civil liberty is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and su human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the sta;. Isa must to every one. The state recognises the various freedoms of individuals. In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”.

The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work Q Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is negative Liberty?
Answer:
Liberty means absence of restraints or constraints. It is callaed negative liberty.

Question 2.
What is positive Liberty?
Answer:
It is understood as creating necessary conditions and removing all possible constraints for the development of human being by the intervention of the state. It is called as positive liberty.

Question 3.
List out any four characteristics of Liberty.
Answer:
Characteristics of Liberty: The following are the important characteristics of Liberty.

Liberty is a dynamic concept. Its interpretation varies according to time, place and wishes of the people.
Liberty always opposes political subjugation, imprisonment and slavery.
It always aims at realizing the aspirations of the individuals.
Liberty always means absence of irrational restraints and presence of favourable conditions.
It is the product of rights.

Question 4.
Mention the names of four types of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is of in the following types namely :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty and
National liberty.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and survival of* human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the state. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights like A) Right to Life B) Right to Work C) Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

Question 6.
Write about Political Liberty.
Answer:
Political liberty facilitates the citizens to take part in the political affairs of the state. Political liberty is confined to the citizens alone. Political liberty provides several rights like

Right to vote
Right to contest as candidates in elections
Right to hold public offices
Right to criticism etc.

Question 7.
Explain the measures for securing Economic Liberty.
Answer:
It is possible to achieve complete economic liberty if the following measures are taken.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

Question 8.
What is Economic Liberty?
Answer:
Economic liberty means the right of every one to earn his livelihood. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and fear, hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. It will be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure etc.

Question 9.
What do you know about National Liberty?
Answer:
National Liberty implies the Freedom and Independence of the state. It also denotes the sovereignty of the state. Every state enjoys this liberty and remains free from the political domination of other states. Ex: The Indian masses under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi waged a non-violent struggle to secure National Freedom from the British Rule.

Question 10.
Mention any four safeguards of Liberty.
Answer:

Democratic rule
Written and rigid constitution
Independent judiciary
Rule of law
Fundamental rights.

Question 11.
Write about Independent Judiciary as a safeguard of Liberty.
Answer:
Independent judiciary :
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Prof. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

3. Equality

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define the term Equality? Write about different kinds of Equality.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality :
The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality’ became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

Ther term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

In Political science, the term ‘Equality’ refers to a state which grants its citizens equality before the law and equal opportunities to develop their personality. But it may be noted that individuals are not equal in many respects. While some of them are strong, some others may be weak. Similarly some are more intelligent than others. In this way, men differ in many respects. Hence, equality of treatment is not possible. In other words, it implies that state should grant to its citizens equality before law and equal protection by law.

Definitions :

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of Equality :
There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following.

1. Social Equality :
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not recognize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through laws. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining social equality.

Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations with their fellow citizens.
People should not use their name of the caste, sect or religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

2. Economic equality :
This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination of inequalities in wealth, income and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barker’s view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

Question 2.
What is equality? Explain its characteristic features.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality: The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality1 became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, Ameri ca, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

In Political science, the term .’Equality’ refers to a state which grants its citizens equality before the law and equal opportunities to develop their personality. But it may be noted that individuals are not equal in many respects. While some of them are strong, some others may be weak. Similarly some are more intelligent than others. In this way, men differ in many respects. Hence, equality of treatment is not possible. In other words, it implies that state should grant to its citizens equality before law and equal protection by law.

Essential Features of Equality:
1. Equality as a Claim of Right :
Equality is a prescriptive term, not a descriptive one. We argue that human beings must be treated as equal, not that they are in fact equal. Equality aims at in the base of social benefits lest these benefits are cornered by a small and vocal minority impoverishing the rest of the community.

2. Equality as a Modem Idea :
Large inequalities of wealth, prestige and power have always remained prominent and almost universal features of social structure throughout human history. With beginning of scientific age, men learned to control natural phenomenon by rational and empirical knowledge of nature. This paved the way for removing such social inequalities as were not reasonable and which were also removable by human effort.

3. Equality as an Idea of Social Change :
With advance of scientific knowledge and technology, more and tore areas of natural inequality are coming within the alterable sphere. We know that health and bodily strength can be improved by proper nutrition, mental-make-up can be considerably developed by proper education and training. But availability of these benefits to an individual is dependent on his socio-economic status.

4. Essential for Social Justice and Liberty :
Equality is essential for social justice. Equality is closely connected with liberty. This is due to the fact that without liberty people cannot have equality. Liberty remains insignificant in the absence of equality.

5. Social distinctions can be based only upon public utility :
Unequal treatment would not be resented in society unless the more gifted persons employ their natural qualities to exploit others. And also, so long as authority and division of labour are based on rational grounds, inequality of status and position does not become objectionable. Inequality is not an issue so long as authority is exercised in the general interest of the society.

6. Equality does not imply literal Equality :
It means equality of opportunities. Equality demands a progressive reduction of inequalities where they are thought to be unreasonable., It does not imply literal equalization. It implies giving equality of opportunities for the development of personal qualities and capacities. It does not mean ‘equality of outcome’.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain any three characteristic features of equality.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality: The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality1 became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

Essential Features of Equality:
1. Equality as a Claim of Right :
Equality is a prescriptive term, not a descriptive one. We argue that human beings must be treated as equal, not that they are in fact equal. Equality aims at ig the base of social benefits lest these benefits are cornered by a small and vocal minority impoverishing the rest of the community.

Question 2.
Explain any three kinds of equality.
Answer:
Definitions :

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”: – H.J.Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of Equality :
There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following. ,.

1. Natural equality :
This kind of equality existed in the “State of Nature”. It is based on the principle that nature has created everyone as equal. But natural equality exists no where in the world. Nature has not created all people with the same qualities. So by natural equality we generally mean the provision of equal opportunities to all. It implies the abolition of man-made and artificial inequalities.

2. Social equality :
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not reconize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through laws. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining social equality.

Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations with their fellow citizens.
People should not use their name of the caste, sector religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

3. Economic equality :
This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination’ of inequalities in wealth, income and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barker’s view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

4. Political equality :
Political equality is an important land of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the Citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Political equality prevails and flourishes when all citizens were provided with political rights like Right to vote, Right to contest elections, Right to make petitions and Right fb criticism. That means political equality flourishes only in democratic countries.

5. International equality :
International equality means that all the states are treated equally irrespective of their geographical, economic or military composition. According to this element all nations of the world are equal whether they are large or small. For instance, the United Nations have extended equal dignity and status to all the nations in its Charter. International Equality reflects the traits of humanism. It emphasizes the peaceful settlement of disputes between the nations. Some cautioned about the occurrence of Third World War in the absence of respect to international law. They expressed apprehensions thinking that human beings will go back to the stone ages.

Question 3.
Explain origin and significance of Equality.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality :
The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality1 became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, Ameri ca, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

Essential Features of Equality:
1. Equality as a Claim of Right :
Equality is a prescriptive term, not a descriptive one. We argue that human beings must be treated as equal, not that they are in fact equal. Equality aims at ig the base of social benefits lest these benefits are cornered by a small and vocal minor ity impoverishing the rest of the community.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is legal Equality?
Answer:
Civil equality implies availability of civil rights without any discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, creed, place of birth, religion and sex. When all citizens are subject to the same law and when law neither confers special privileges on some nor makes any individual suffers owing to his social status, religious beliefs, political views, race or caste etc., there exists civil and legal equality. In a society civil equality is said to prevail when there is equality before law and equal protection of laws. This civil and legal equality emerged in modem times with adoption of democracy.

Question 2.
What is Economic Equality?
Answer:
Economic equality :
This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination of inequalities in wealth, income and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barker’s view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

Question 3.
What is. Political Equality?
Answer:
Political equality :
Political equality is an important kind of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness.

Then only political . equality brings the required fruits. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Political equality prevails and flourishes when all citizens were provided with political rights like Right to vote, Right to contest elections, Right to make petitions and Right to criticism. That means political equality flourishes only in democratic countries.

Question 4.
Equality and Social change.
Answer:
Equality as an idea of Social Change :
With advance of scientific knowledge and technology, more and more areas of natural inequality are coming tvithin the alterable sphere. We know that health and bodily strength can be improved by proper nutrition, mental-make-up can be considerably developed by proper education and training. But availability of these benefits to an individual is dependent on his socio-economic status.

Question 5.
What is International Equality?
Answer:
International equality :
International equality means that all the states are treated equally irrespective of their geographical, economic or military composition. According to this element all nations of the world are equal whether they are large or small. For instance, the United Nations have extended equal dignity and status to all the nations in its charter. International Equality reflects the traits of humanism. It emphasizes the peaceful settlement of disputes between the nations. Some cautiofted about the occurrence of Third World War in the absence of respect to international law. They expressed apprehensions thinking that human beings will go back to the stone ages.

Question 6.
What is Social Equality?
Answer:
Social equality :
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to .suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not recognize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through laws. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining.social equality.

Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations With their fellow citizens.
People should not use their name of the caste, sect or religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

Question 7.
How Equality is essential for Liberty?
Answer:
Equality is essential for Liberty: Equality does not mean identical treatment which is impossible in a civil society. It means equality under similar conditions. In a civil society, some persons may not have equal status with others. But it is necessary to provide some conditions and opportunities for the people to develop their status and personality. It may be said that when all people are equal, the fruits of liberty is available to all.

In this “way liberty and equality are complementary to each other. These two concepts are so inter related that they have common objective. If liberty disregards equality, it would lead to anarchy and dictatorship. In the same way, if equality keeps itself away from liberty, it would lead to slavery. Both the ideals are essential for the betterment of the individual and the society.

Question 8.
How Liberty is essential for Equality?
Answer:
Liberty is essential for equality:
a) Liberty does not mean absolute freedom. It has some limitations. It is available to ‘ all for achieving social welfare under certain conditions.
b) Liberty cannot be treated as the monopoly of a person or a group of persons.
c) Enj oyment of liberty by a person does not affect the same of others. If one recognizes this principle, he has to respect the principle of equality. It means that the fruits of liberty are found in the branches of the tree of equality. So, liberty and equality are complementary to each other. When liberty is extended to all the people on the principles of equality, the goal of liberty could be fulfilled in the true sense.

Question 9.
What is Equality of opportunity?
Answer:
The idea of equality refers to the equality of rights and opportunities.
1. Harold Laski, in his book, ‘A Grammar of Politics’, mentioned that Equality implies fundamentally a leveling process.
2. According to Barker, equality implies “Equal rights for all the people and abolition of all special rights and privileges”.

4. Justice

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Justice and describe various types of Justice.
Answer:
Introduction :
Justice is a dynamic concept in the contemporary society. It has received the attention of several political philosophers, social reformers, economic thinkers and psychological experts. They have considered the basic instinct of individuals belonging to the various sections residing in several parts of the world. Besides, almost all states, irrespective of their political and economic doctrines, have been striving to achieve justice and to establish a society based on justice.

Meaning :
The word “Justice” is derived from a Latin word “Jus” which means “to bind”.

Definitions :
We may advance some of the definitions of Justice in the following lines.
1. Plato :
“Justice is giving to everyman his due. It is a combination of reason, courage, appetite and will in terms of the state.”

2. Aristotle :
“Justice is no other than each and every individual in society discharging his moral duties.”

3. Caphalous :
“Justice means speaking the truth and paying one’s debts.”

4. Polymarchus :
“Justice means to help friends and harm enemies.”

5. Barker :
“Justice means a combination and co-ordination of political values.” Types of Justice : There are different types of Justice. They relate to Natural, Social,

Political and Legal spheres. Let us analyse these types of Justice.

1. Natural Justice :
Natural Justice is based on the notion that every person in the world possesses some rights for availing the natural resources. Natural resources provide support to the life of each and every creature on Earth. As the human beings are the only rational creatures, it is their responsibility to see that natural resources have to be judiciously exploited. Human beings must keep in mind the requirements of future generations In this regard.

2. Social Justice :
Social Justice envisages a balance between rights of individuals and social control. It facilitates the fulfillment of the legitimate expectations of the individuals under the existing laws. It ensures several benefits and extends protection to the individuals against the interference or encroachment from others in society. It is consistent with the unity and the integrity of the nation. It fulfills the needs of the society.

Social Justice enforces the principle of equality before law. It also ensures eradication of social evils like poverty, unemployment, starvation, disease etc. It also extends protection to the downtrodden and weaker sections of society. Ultimately it provides those conditions essential for the all round development of individuals.

3. Political Justice :
Political Justice symbolises political equality. It implies provision of political rights to all the adult citizens in a state. It facilitates free and fair participation of the citizens in the governance of the country. It is manifested to the full extent in times of elections. It allows the citizens for their active participation in day-to-day administration. It is based on the premise that everyone is counted as one and none for more than one. It may be noted that political justice prevails in the State when the following conditions are prevalent

Rule of law
Independent Judiciary
Popular elections to the representative bodies.
Political parties.
Freedom of press and assembly
Democratic rule etc.

4. Economic Justice :
Economic Justice refers to the absence of economic discrimination between individuals on irrational and unnatural grounds. It stands for the equal treatment of individuals irrespective of differences in the income, money, wealth, property etc. In its positive aspect, it implies payment of adequate emoluments to the workers strongly abhorring disparities in the distribution of wealth and incomes. It does not allow exploitation of the weaker sections. It sees that nobody is deprived of the basic necessities of life. It hints out that everyone must be provided with adequate food, clothing, shelter and other minimum needs. It conceives just economic order in the society. It supports the principle “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

5. Legal Justice :
Legal Justice is manifested in the laws of the state. It is supplemented by customs of the society. It is embodied in the Constitution and legislative enactments in a state. It determines the legal contours of Justice. Legal Justice basically has two implications. Firstly, it implies that there is just application of the laws in society on the basis of rule of law. There will be no discrimination between individuals in the applications of laws. Secondly, laws are made in consonance with the principles of natural justice.

Question 2.
What is Justice? Explain different Concepts of Justice.
Answer:
The concept of justice has been put forth and elaborated by different theories of justice. Broadly they are categorized into three :

Greeks, stoics and Roman Concepts of Justice,
Modem theory of Justice and
Contemporary theories of justice.

1. Greeks, Stoics and Foman Concepts of Justice :
Plato laid the foundation of justice. Virtue is the core value of Platonic justice. Virtue is consisted in the discharge of duty by every individual without interfering into other’s duties. For Aristotle, law abidingness is a complete virtue. Aristotle regards justice as complete virtue. According to Stoics, justice could be discovered by reason and was superior to positive law (law made by state). According to Romans justice is associated with law.

2. Modern theory of Justice :
Modem theory of justice emerged with social contact theories of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, after the movements of reformation, renaissance and industrial revolution. Hobbes identified justice with absolute sovereignty of the state. Locke identified justice with natural rights and Rousseau with ‘General will’.

3. Contemporary theories of Justice :
These theories focus on distinction between Substantial justice and Procedural justice. Procedural justice treats the rules of market economy as the modal rules of human behaviour. Freedom of contract is the main stay of procedural justice. It is the just procedure than its outcome which automatically is accepted as just. F.A. Hayek, Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick were its main exponents. Procedural Justice repudiates all discrimination and accepts equal dignity and moral worth of all human beings.

The idea of substantive justice corresponds to the philosophy of socialism. It holds that test of justice in society consists in ascertaining whether poor and the underprivileged have adequate opportunity to improve their lot. The allocation and distribution is the primary issue and the procedural aspects are secondary. In a capitalist system that corresponds to procedural justice, the creative freedom of human beings is destroyed as his skills, talents and energies are forced to cater to the needs of the market place instead of allowing him to pursue his own self appointed goals. Equal dignity and moral worth of all human beings is a mirage in the capitalist economy.

4. John Rawls theory of Justice :
He discovered a method for making procedural justice an instrument of meeting the requirements of substantive justice. He insisted on the emancipation of the least advantaged on priority basis. He shows that society can be strengthened by strengthening its weakest parts successively. His Justice is based on three principles 1. Principle of equal liberty 2. Principle of faire equality of opportunity 3. Difference Principle which implies any deviation from the equal distribution of primary goods can be justified only it could be proved to bring greatest benefit to the least advantaged. Thus, he tries to combine the values of Socialism and capitalism.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe any three types of Justice.
Answer:
1. Natural Justice :
Natural Justice is based on the notion that every person in the world possesses some rights for availing the natural resources. Natural resources provide support to the life of each and every creature on Earth. As the human beings are the only rational creatures, it is their responsibility to see that natural resources have to be judiciously exploited. Human beings must keep in mind the requirements of future generations in this regard.

Rule of law
Independent Judiciary
Popular elections to the representative bodies.
Political parties.
Freedom of press and assembly
Democratic rule etc.

Question 2.
Point out any two concepts of Justice.
Answer:
Meaning :
The word “Justice” is derived from a Latin word “JUS” which means “to bind”.

Definition :
“Justice means speaking the truth and paying one’s detbs”. – Caphalous

Sources of Justice :
Earnest Barker gives four sources of Justice. They are mentioned as below.

Nature
Ethics
Religion
Economic elements

1. Nature :
The Greek stories perceived nature to be a source of Justice. Their perception of nature was a combination of moral philosophy and religious beliefs. For them nature, God and reason were inseparable entities. They pointed out that men who lived according to nature shared similar views of reason and God. They viewed that nature embodies three things. They are :

1. Man should be free, 2. Man should be treated equally, 3. Man should be associated with his fellow beings by the common element of reason. These three things in turn have remained as a basis for liberty, equality and fraternity in society in course of time.

2. Ethics :
Idealist thinkers like plato, Emanuel Kant, Thomas Hilly Green, Earnest Barker and other propounded that justice originated from ethical practices. They pointed out that values accepted by the society over a period of time have intum become the impersonal source of positive Justice. The state enforced this positive justice in course of time.

3. Religion :
Religion is regarded as another source of Justice. This source has been in force since medieval age. The church authorities held the notion that it was God who propounded the notions of justice, right and wrong. God, through church, initiated the concept of justice as the rule of the theory of might. Thomas Acqinas a philosopher turned saint believed that the Church is the manifestation of religion. According to him, life based on laws is the best one. The king must lead the people in right directions. He must exercise his authority in compliance to the church authority.

4. Economic elements :
Economic elements are also treated as a source of justice. These elements attained significance with the advent of industrial revolution which led to glaring economic disparities between different sections-of society. Industrial revolution, inspite of its tremendous achievements, led to the growth of miseries, poverty and immorality in society. It forced the people to have a strong zeal of enterprise. Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus and other classical economists analysed justice in terms of economic factors. Later, revolutionary thinkers like Karl Marx and Frederich Engles strongly advocated the role of economic elements as a basis to the justice. These thinkers began to prove the deficiencies in capitalist society. They argued that justice prevails only when economic equality is achieved through a classless society.

Question 3.
Social Justice and Indian Constitution.
Answer:
The term social justice implies a just social order. It seeks to eliminate all kinds of discrimination and abolition of privileges based on birth, race, caste, creed or sex. Therefore, Social Justice implies a reordering of social life in such a manner that the material and moral benefits of social effort are not cornered by a tiny privileged class, but accrues to the masses to ensure the uplift of the lower, weaker and underprivileged sections of the society. It ensures eradication of social evils like poverty, unemployment, starvation, disease etc.

Social justice includes economic justice and also to restore the dignity of human beings who have lost it due to lower economic, educational and cultural status. It Seeks to eradicate social discrimination at all levels. The concept of socialjustice usually applies to comprehend all the three aspects of justice – social, economic and political of these, the economic aspect is the most crucial because economic disparities and the resultant injustice are bound to erode the foundation of legal and political justice.

The Indian constitution which came into effect in 1950, particularly its Preamble and the IV part dealing with the Directive principles of state policy, is committed to the ideal of social justice – social, economics and political.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Justice.
Answer:
“Justice is giving to every man his due. It is a combination of reason, courage, appetite and will in terms of the stqte” – Plato

Question 2.
What are the criteria of Justice?
Answer:
Economic elements are considered to be one of the important sources of Justice. These elements attained significance with the advent of industrial revolution which led to the vast economic disparities between different sections of the people.

Question 3.
What do you mean by Political Justice?
Answer:
Political Justice symbolises political equality. It implies provision of political rights to all the adult citizens in a state. It facilitates free and fair participation of the citizens in the governance of the country. It is manifested to the full extent in times of elections. It allows the citizens for their active participation in day-to-day administration. It is based on the premise that everyone is counted as one and none for more than one. It may be noted that political justice prevails in the State when the following conditions are prevalent 1.’ Rule of law 2. Independent Judiciary 3. Popular elections to the representative bodies. 4. Political parties. 5. Freedom of press and assembly 6. Democratic rule etc.

Question 4.
What do you know about Social Justice?
Answer:
Social Justice envisages a balance between rights of individuals and social control. It facilitates the fulfillment of the legitimate expectations of the individuals under the existing laws. It ensures several benefits and extends protection to the individuals against the interference or encroachment from others in society. It is consistent with the unity and the integrity of the nation. It fulfills the needs of the society.

Social Justice enforces the principle of equality before law. It also ensures eradication of social evils like poverty, unemployment starvation, disease etc. It also extends protection to the downtrodden and weaker sections of society. Ultimately it provides those conditions essential for the all round development of individuals.

Question 5.
What are the implications of Legal Justice?
Answer:
Legal Justice has two implications :

It implies that there is just application of the laws in the society on the basis of rule of law.
Laws are made in accordance with the principle of Natural Justice.

Question 6.
What are the views of John Rawls on Social Justice?
Answer:
John Rawls Admitted that:

Social Justice implies equal access to the liberties, rights and opportunities to the deprived sections of the society.
Social Justice is built around the idea of a social contract committed by the people for obeying certain rules.

Question 7.
What are the views of Aristotle on Justice?
Answer:
Justice is no other thaa each and every individual in society discharging his moral duties. – Aristotle

Question 8.
What are the views of Plato on Justice?
Answer:
Justice is giving to every man his due. It is a combination of reason, courage, appetite and, will in terms of the state.

Question 9.
What do you mean by procedural Justice?
Answer:
Procedural justie. Procedural justice treats the rules of market economy as the modal rules of human bahavior. Freedom of contract is the main stay of procedural justice. It is the just procedure than its outcome which automatically is accepted as just. F.A.Hayek, Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick were its main exponents. Procedural Justice repudiates all discrimination and accepts equal dignity and moral worth of all human beings.

Question 10.
What do you mean by substantitive Justice?
Answer:
Substantive justice corresponds to the philosophy of socialism. It holds that test of justice in society consists in ascertaining whether poor and the underprivileged have adequate opportunity to improve their lot. The allocation and distribution is the primary issue and the procedural aspects are secondary. In a capitalist system that corresponds to procedural justice.

5. Power and Authority

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define power and explain its different kinds of power.
Answer:
The concept of power has become a key concept covering all aspects of politics. If the politics is viewed as the process of resolution of the conflict, the distribution of power within a political communities determines how the conflict is to be resolved and whether the resolution is to be effectively accepted by all parties.

Definition of power:

H.VWiseman defined power as “the ability to get one’s wishes carried out despite resistance”.
Hans.J.Morgenthan defined power as “Man’s control over the minds and actions of other men”.
Edward A.Schills defined power as “the ability to influence the behaviour of others in accordance with one’s own ends”.

Different kinds (or) Forms of power :
1. Political Power :
Political power refers to the influence exercised by formal and informal organs of the state. Power, in politics, is always political power, power of the state, power of the government, and power of the laws through which’government operates. But these formal organs, in turn, are influenced by the informal organs which not only take the form of political parties in power and in opposition, but also large’ number of pressure groups, public opinion, popular movements, mass media etc. Therefore, the comprehensive analysis of power goes beyond formal organs of the state and includes informal organs of the state.

2. Technological Power :
Technology, in modem times, has become an important element in the exercise of power. In recent times, the down of intelligent machine in the form of Artificial intelligence (Al) revolution will have immense influence on man, society and politics. The computers, unintelligent machines, are already doing much of the work in contemporary democracies. Political parties rely on large automated data base to help run their campaigns. Governments increasingly utilize big data systems to manage and deliver health care and other public services. Our dependence on the technology leaves us ripe for exploitation. Its visible signs are fake news and the micro targeting of voters with machine-generated massages designed to trigger their individual prejudices so as to influence voting behavior. Therefore, whoever gains upper hand technologically will have decisive influence on politics.

3. Economic Power :
Economic power is the power derived from the possession of wealth, especially the major means of production and distribution. Economic power plays a vital role in decision making processes in liberal democracies. If a nation possesses abundant natural and other resources, it will have more economic power. The major newspapers and TV channels are owned by a handful big business houses who take full advantage of these media to promote opinion which suits their opinion. Consumer culture is promoted in a big way to suit their business interests.

4. Ideological Power :
Ideological power represents the manipulative power of the dominant or ruling classes which hold sway bn the thinking and emotions of the people and try to create an illusion of consent. Thus, the people are led to believe that they are governed with their approval while they are actually continued to be governed according to the designs of the ruling classes. This ideological domination by the ruling class through the consent of the ruled is conceptualized as ‘hegemony’ by the Italian Marxist, Antonia Gramsci (1891 – 1937). Thus, an outstanding feature of political ideology is that it provides legitimacy to the ruling classes and helps them maintain their strong hold on political power. When people are made to believe that a particular system of government is the best system, they will not be inclined to challenge the authority of the ruling classes.

5. National Power :
From the point of view of realist’s perspective, politics is a struggle for power’. ‘Whatever may be the ultimate aims of international politics, power is the immediate aim’. In the context of international relations, the national power implies a sovereign state (s) attempt to influence other sovereign state (s) in terms of achieving its own goals in international affairs. In this context, the terms like ‘unipolar’, ‘Bipolar’ and ‘multipolar’ world systems represent the world politics as dominated by one, two and many nations respectively. There are different methods of exercising national power through force, influence and authority. Force is the explicit threat or the use of military, economic and other instruments of coercion. Influence is the use of instruments of persuasion in order to alter the behavior of other nation. Authority is the compliance by one nation to the directives issued by another nation nurtured by the perception of respect, solidarity, affection, affinity, leadership, knowledge and expertise.

Question 2.
What is Power? Explain different perspectives of power.
Answer:
The concept of power has become a key concept covering all aspects of politics. Power denotes the ability of a person to fulfill his desires or to achieve his objectives. Power is a relationship in which one person or group is able to determine the actions of another in the direction of the former’s ends.

Different perspectives of power :
1. Elite Perspective :
Elite perspective of power was developed in early twentieth century by three famous sociologists : Pareto, Mosca and Michels. This perspective regards competence and aptitude is responsible for the division of society into elites and masses. The elite exercises and influences political power. This theory believes in that the division becomes natural and functional and it will have little prospects of a thorough going change in such position.

2. Group perspective :
Group perspective on power corresponds to pluralist theory. This perspective was developed by Artur Bently, it believes in that power, divides the society into two broad categories – dominant and dependent groups. According to this theory, power in society is not concentrated in a single group, but it is dispersed amongst a wide variety of social groups. These groups are largely autonomous and almost independent centers of decision. Organization of workers, peasants, traders, industrialists, consumers etc. could be cited as examples of such groups in the contemporary society. They have their own share of power in their respective spheres of operation.

3. Gender Perspective :
In recent times gender perspective has become predominant in the study of power. It recognizes the division of society into two broad groups on the basis of gender : men and women. This division was created by nature for sustaining the human race and to enable human beings build up an excellent civilization and culture. But it is society which placed men and women in dominant and dependent positions respectively. Feminist theory demands a thorough going change in this arrangement and wish to liberate women from the undue dominance of men, which is manifested in the concept of ‘patriarchy’ implying the age-old and universal dominance of man over woman.

4. Class Perspective :
Class perspective on power was developed by Marx (1818-83) and Engels (1820-95) during nineteenth century. According to this theory, political power is the product of economic power which is vested in the ownership of means of social production. From the dawn of civilization society was divided into two antagonistic classes – ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ on the basis of ownership and non-ownership of the means of social production. Thus this theory recognized ‘class’ as the organizing category for exercising power in society. Those who owned the means of social production had become the ‘dominant class’ and the rest of the society had been reduced to ‘dependent class’. This theory believes in establishing class-less society through socialist revolution.

5. Modem perspective :
As against the conventional theories of power which primarily concerned with ‘power over’ that is, power (of the dominant) over (the dependent), modem perspective insists on the concept of ‘power to’ that is, ‘power’ (of the dependent) to (achieve a goal of his own choice). Empowerment of vulnerable sections like for example, empowerment of women and of the ordinary people, implies equipping them with ‘power to’ resist their oppressors and gain an opportunity and ability to utilize their capacities for self-development.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is Power? What is its Significance?
Answer:
The concept of power has become a key concept covering all aspects of politics. Power denotes the ability of a person to fulfill his desires or to achieve his objectives. Power is a relationship in which one person or group is able to determine the actions of another in the direction of the former’s ends.

Significance of power :
What the concept of power for politics is the money to the subject of Economics. With the emergence of the concept of Power as focus of study, political science gained an independent status as against its earlier status of an appendage to the study of philosophy or history or law or ethics. “The exponents of the power view of politics focus on the study of the acquisition, maintenance and loss of power. Herald Lasswell and A.Kaplan defined political science as ‘the study of shaping and sharing of power’.

During the early phase of development of modem political science, it was felt that the proper scope of political science was not just the study of the state or any other formal institutions, but it was informal organs which have got lot of influence, that is power, in the state. With the inclusion of both the formal and the informal political organizations, political science has become a study of modern political dynamics and expanded its scope.

The traditional perspective of power maintained that the exercise of power divided the society into two broad categories – dominant and dependent groups. But in modern pluralist society, individuals may be divided into several competing groups according to their status and interests. These groups cannot be classified into dominant and dependent groups. They have their own share of power in their respective spheres of operation. In order to protect democracy, these groups should be allowed to exercise their influence on government in the process of policy formulation and government should also seek co¬operation of these groups in the process of decision-making. Thus, study of power in politics promotes the project of democracy.

Question 2.
Explain any two perspectives of Power.
Answer:
1. Group Perspective :
Group perspective on power corresponds to pluralist theory. This perspective was developed by Artur Bently, it believes in that power divides the society into two broad categories – dominant and dependent groups. According to this theory, power in society is not concentrated in a single group, but it is dispersed amongst a wide variety of social groups. These groups are largely autonomous and almost independent centers of decision. Organization of workers, peasants, traders, industrialists, consumers etc., could be cited as examples of such groups in the contemporary society. They have their own share of power in their respective spheres of operation.

2. Gender perspective :
In recent times gender perspective has become predominant in the study of power. It recognizes the division of society into two broad groups on the basis of gender : men and women. This division was created by nature for sustaining the human race and to enable human beings build up an excellent civilization and culture. But it is society which placed men and women in dominant and dependent positions respectively. Feminist theory demands a thorough going change in this arrangement and wish to liberate women from the undue dominance of men, which is manifested in the concept of ‘patriarchy’ implying the age-old and universal dominance of man over woman.

Question 3.
Explain three types of Authority.
Answer:
The sociologist and philosopher Max Weber distinguishes three types of Authority – namely i) Charismatic ii) Traditional and iii) Legal-rational.

Each of which corresponds to a brand of leadership that is operative in contemporary society.
i) Charismatic Authority :
The charismatic authority points to an individual who possesses certain traits that make a leader extraordinary. This type of leader is not only capable of but actually possesses the superior power of charisma to rally diverse and conflict-prone people behind him. His power comes from the massive trust and almost unbreakable faith people put in him.

ii) Traditional authority :
Traditional authority indicates the presence of a dominant personality. This leader is some one who depends on established tradition or order. While this leader is also a dominant personality, the prevailing order in society gives him the mandate to rule. This type of leadership, however is reflective of every day routine and conduct.

iii) Legal-rational authority :
Legal-rational authority is one that is grounded in clearly defined laws. The obedience of people is not based on the capacity of any leader but on the legitimacy and competence that procedures and laws bestow upon persons in authority. Contemporary society depends on this type of rationalization, as the complexities of its problems require the emergence of a bureaucracy that embodies order and systematization.

Question 4.
What is the difference between Power and Authority?
Answer:
The main points of distinction between power and Authority are the following :
i) Authority is always legitimate whereas power’s both legitimate and illegitimate :
According to Robert Dahl, legitimate power’s called authority. In the words of Lasswell, power becomes authority when it is legalised. Capacity to issue orders is power. Whereas authority is that point where decisions are taken. Authority is based on popular support. It has legitimacy behind it. On the other hand, power may or may not be legitimate one can exercise power by sheer force,for example, a military dictator or autocratic king. Legitimate power acquires the character of Authority.

ii) Authority is based pn consent, whereas power is based on force :
Fredrick holds that “Authority is the capacity to justify by a process of reasoning what is desired from the viewpoint of man. “Power is an instrument of coercion and has a physical effect’, authority could as well be based on consent and yet be more effective. The authority of a teacher, a journalist or a social worker is not based on power, and is yet greatly respected.

iii) Authority is more democratic than power :
Authority is based on consent and people’s willingness to respect and obey it. It represents the will of the people through their representatives who possess such authority. Power, on the other hand, may be exercised through force in violation of the laws of the state and used by the ruler for his own self interests.

iv) Authority reflects the ability of man to get his proposals accepted but power is the capacity of man to change the behaviour of others: According to Fredrick, authority is the capacity to justify by a process of reasoning what is desired from the point of view of man whereas power is the, capacity to control others so that they will do what they are wanted to do. Authority refers to one’s ability whereas power refers to his capacity.

v) Authority carries the element of reasoning, whereas the power includes the element of force.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is Power?
Answer:
Power denotes the ability of a person to fulfill his desires or to achieve his objectives, power is a relationship in which one person or group is able to determine the actions of another in the direction of the former’s ends. H.V. Wiseman defined power as “the ability to get one’s wishes carried out despite resistance”.

Question 2.
What is Authority?
Answer:
The concept of authority is closely linked with the concept of power. Authority means legitimate power. Hamuel Arendt Portrays authority as power based on consent. Following are the definitions of authority.

“Authority is the capacity to justify by a process of reasoning what is desired from the point of view of man” – Fredrick
“Legitimate power is often called Authority”. – Robert.A.Dahl

Question 3.
Whaf is Legitimacy?
Answer:
The word legitimacy has been derived from the Latin word ‘Legitimas’ which means lawful. According to Max Weber legitimacy is based in belief and gets obedience from the people power is effective only if it is legitimate. Undoubtedly, power has the right to use coercion but that is not its chief element power should be based on legitimacy, otherwise it would invite trouble.and may prove ineffective. J.C.Pleno and R.E.Riggs define legitimacy as “the quality of being justified or willingly accepted by subordinates that convert the exercise, of political power into rightful authority.

Question 4.
What is uni-polar world?
Answer:
Unipolarity in international politics is a distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural, economic and military influence unipolar systems possess only one great power and face no competition. The posteoid war international system is unipolar. The United States defence – spending is close to half of global military expenditures. The United States of America (USA) is playing a dominant role in the.affairs of the United . Nations Organisation (UNO) and even in the world affairs since the end of the cold war in 1991.

Question 5.
What are the Formal organs of power in the state?
Answer:
These are three formal organs of power in the state. They are : i) Legislature ii) Executive and iii) Judiciary. Legislature prepares, Amends Laws and Repeals old laws. Executive implements the different laws prepared by the legislature and maintains law and order in the state. Judiciary interprets and analyses the prevailing laws and provides justice.
The will of the state is formulated, expressed and realised through these formal organs.

Question 6.
What are the Informal organs of power in the state?
Answer:
These are eight main informal organs of power in the state. They are popularly known as agents of political socialisation. They are namely :

The family
The school
Peer groups (or) Reference groups
Employment experiences
Mass – media
Government and Party agencies
Symbols
Direct contact.

Question 7.
Who propounded Elite Theory of Power?
Answer:
Elite theory of power was propounded by three famous sociologists namely Pareto, Mosca and Michels in early twentieth century. This theory regards competence and aptitude is responsible for the division of society into elites and masses. The elite exercises and influences political power. This theory believes in that the division, becomes natural and functional and it will have little prospects of a thorough going change in such position.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 11 Organs of Government

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 11th Lesson Organs of Government Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 11th Lesson Organs of Government

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the structure of Bicameralism and the functions of the Legislature.
Answer:
Legislature may be Bicameral or Unicameral. In Bicameralism there are two houses, namely, lower and upper house or first chamber and second chamber. The lower house represents the will of the people. The upper house represents the interests of the states.

Ex’s in India Rajyasabha is the upper house and Loksabha is the lower house.

The members of the upper house are elected from the component states. These members represent their respective states in the central government. The people directly elect the members of the lower house .through universal adult franchise.

Functions of the legislature :
The basic function of the legislature is to enact laws as per the will of the people. The legislature in modern times is discharging certain administrative and judicial duties besides forming the laws. The functions of the legislature also depend upon the form of the government. The role of the legislature is limited ina presidential form of government. But, it has an extensive role in the parliamentary government. The functions fo the legislature can be analysed under different heads like : Legislative functions, Executive functions, Financial functions, Judicial functions, Constitutional functions and other functions.

1. Legislative functions :
To frame the laws is the basic function of the legislature. It is the important duty of the legislature to pass laws as per the will of the people. The legislature has powers to frame new laws and also to change, revise or cancel the laws which are outdated. The legislature not only makes laws but also conducts detailed discussions and consultations on different subjects. The legislature discusses extensively every bill before it becomes law.

2. Functions to control executive :
In the parliamentary government, the council of ministers is responsible to the legislature. The legislature exercises control on the council of ministers in dealing with the problems cropping up in the country, and their solutions through different resolutions and questions. It can also pull down the government through a no confidence motion if such a need arises.

3. Financial functions :
The financial functions of the legislature are of much importance in democratic countries. The legislature has to approve the income and expenditure under different heads shown in the budget. The legislature can decide the amount of expenditure under different heads. Levying new taxes or abolishing already existing taxes can be taken up with the consent of the legislature only.

4. Judicial functions :
The legislature, especially the upper house performs some judicial functions. The House of Lords in England functions as the highest court of justice. In U.S.A. and India, the legislature has to try impeachment cases against the president or the Justices of Supreme Court and High Courts. Some times the legislature conducts enquiry through separate committees on the allegations against the government. The legislature has the authority to punish anybody who commits breach of privileges of members and those who violate the rules of the house.

5. Constitutional functions :
The legislature has the right to amend the constitution besides framing the laws. It can amend the constitution as per the needs and requirements of the country which change from time to time.

6. Other functions :
Besides the above functions, the legislature has some more functions like, accepting or rejecting the ordinances declared by the government; electing the speaker, appointing necessary committees to enquire into the lapses of the government and to formulate rules and procedures of the legislative business.

Question 2.
What is Executive? What are its functions?
Answer:
Of the three organs of government, the Executive occupies the most important place. Very often it is referred to as the government. It refers to that branch of government which executes or enforces the laws of the state those are framed by the legislature that is why the executive is identified with government in modem times. Broadly speaking, the executive has three parts :

The Head of the state
The Council of ministers and
The Employees.

Functions of the Executive :
Defence and Foreign affairs :
The executive takes suitable decisions and implements them in case of any threat to the national independence and sovereignty and protects the country from foreign aggression. The duties of the executive include establishing embassies in others countries, recognising newly formed states and concluding treaties and alliances with the foreign countries.

Administrative functions :
The entire administration is carried on in the name of the executive. In this context, its functions include appointment of the officers in highest ranks allotting their duties, providing training, giving directions to different administrative departments, changing the rules and regulations from time to time, to protect law and order, to appoint and advise the council of ministers in parliamentary system, to create new departments or reorganise the existing ones or abolish them altogether as deemed necessary.

Legislative functions :
The executive prepares the draft bills to be presented to the legislature and gets them enacted. In the parliamentary government as the members are directly associated with the legislature the ministers present the draft bills to the legislature and get its acceptance. After acceptance by the legislature, the draft bills can become acts with the assent of the chief executive. In the presidential government, the president sends to the legislature for its acceptance certain messages embodying the various legislative measures considered necessary by him. All the bills passed by the legislature can become acts only with the assent of the president. When the legislature does not meet, the executive can issue ordinances.

Financial functions :
It is the duty of the executive to prepare the annual budget containing income and expenditure of the government and gets the approval of the legislature. The legislature cannot levy new taxes without the consent of the executive. Levy or abolition of taxes, provision of capital funds, reduction of prices etc. come under the domain of executive responsibility.

Judicial functions :
The executive has the certain functions like : To implement the judgements of the courts of law, to reduce or cancel the punishment, to appoint the Judges, to appoint special courts for the enquiry of certain special problems etc. In some of the democratic countries the chief executive appoints judges of the highest courts of justice.

Welfare functions :
It is the Prime duty of the executive in the modern times to undertake welfare measures. The executive has to work for the planned development and contribute for the improvement of the standards of living.

Question 3.
Discuss Judiciary and its Functions.
Answer:
The Judiciary is the third important organ of the government. Legislature enacts the laws. The executive implements them. But it is the judiciary which decides the constitutional validity of these laws both in theory and practice. The judiciary keeps the democratic government within the constitutional limits. The judiciary also has to protect the law abiding citizens and punish the criminals. It consists of the judges and magistrates charged with the duty of administering justice. In brief, it is the branch of the government which settles disputes and administers justice.

Functions of the Judiciary :
Dispensing Justice :
It has to solve the disputes between the citizens, the citizens and the government and different governments. It punishes the criminals after due trial.

Protection of Civil rights :
The courts of law protect the fundamental rights given to the citizens by the constitution. The citizens can approach the court of law when their fundamental rights are violated. The courts issue writs for enforcement of these rights. The citizens can obtain stay orders from courts in advance when they apprehend violation of their rights. In order to protect the rights of the individuals, the courts of law can issue writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition etc.

Constitutional protection :
The Judiciary safeguards the constitution in the democratic countries. The Judiciary annuls the unconstitutional decisions of the legislature and the executive. By interpreting the constitution and laws it reviews the laws of the legislature and the actions of the executive and strikes down unconstitutional measures. This authority of the judiciary is called as ‘Judicial Review’.

Protection of equilibrium in federal system :
Judiciary plays a key role in the federal system. The courts of law solve the disputes between the provinces and the central government and also between one province and another. It supervises to see that neither the disputes between the central and provincial governments that arise due to matters relating to the division and distribution of powers.

Advisory functions :
The highest court of justice provides advice to the head of the State on request. For instance in India, the President takes the advice of the Supreme Court on certain problems of constitutional applications. Appellate Jurisdiction: The highest court of justice has to provide justice on the appeals made against the judgements of the lower courts. At times, it ratifies the judgements given in the lower courts and some other times, such judgements are reversed.

Protection of records :
The judiciary has to preserve all the cases along with their judgements. These records will help lawyers and judges in the trial of similar cases in future.

Providing service regulations :
The courts of justice prescribe service regulations of employees working in courts of law.

Functioning as the Head of State :
In some countries and under certain conditions, as identified in India, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court can function as acting Head of the State when there is no Vice-President in office.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What are the reasons for the decline of the significance of legislature?
Answer:
The political thinkers opine that the legislature, which has wide powers theoretically, is losing its significance gradually in the democratic countries. There are many reasons for this.

The executive acquired a lot of constitutional and legal powers to achieve comprehensive Socio-economic development.
The legislature has to depend on the executive as it does not possess even the fundamental capacity to understand the novel measures introduced in the administrative system due to advancement of science and technology.
Since the highest political offices are filled in through direct elections, the government gained importance by directly influencing the people. It could develop direct relations with the people lessening the importance of the legislature.
Another reason for the reduction of the importance of the legislature is delegated legislation. The legislature, passess a law in a skeleton form and delegates power to the executive to fill in the details of it in the shape of rules and regulations. This is called ‘delegated legislation’. This power is used by the executive to implement plans and welfare schemes.
Other reasons the political thinkers are worried about the fact that the significance of the legislature is further reduced due to certain reasons like lack of a powerful opposition, less duration of the sessions of the parliament, the irresponsible behaviour of the ruling party and also the misbehaviour of the legislators.

Question 2.
Discuss the reasons for the growth of importance of the Executive.
Answer:
In recent years, several factors have led to a steady increase in the powers, functions, prominence and prestige of the Executive organ all over the world. The factors are as follows :
1. Concept of welfare state :
As a result of the advent of the concept of welfare state, the functions of the modem state are gradually increasing. The present state is called upon to look after multifarious activities like labour welfare, education, social security, health, production, distribution etc., which promote the welfare of the people. Hence, the executive requires vast powers to cope with the problems of the modern welfare state.

2. Delegated legislation :
Today the legislative organ is overburdened with work. As a result, it passes laws in a skeleton farm only and empowers the executive to make detailed bye-laws, rules and regulations. This is known as delegated legislation. This has led to the growth of executive importance.

3. Party system :
The present representative system is under the control of the political parties. Parties have provided leadership to the executive and reduced the legislatures to the level of registering bodies. Now, it is the executive organ which performs most of the legislative functions by extra constitutional methods.

4. Economic planning :
For the planned economic development, the government interferes in’ all economic, aspects. As a result the executive branch is becoming more prominent.

Question 3.
Discuss Judicial Review.
Answer:
Judicial Review means reviewing the laws made by the legislatures. The laws of the legislatures (parliament, assemblies, Councils, Parishades etc.,) must not be unconstitutional. The courts of law can nullify all laws which are unconstitutional. This is the Judicial Review. The Judicial Review is not limited only to laws. It is applicable to all the activities of the executive at different levels of central, state and local government institutions. Every State will have a constitution. It is its basic law and all the laws must be within the limits of the constitution. The constitution provides the courts of law with the right to see that all laws and activities conform to the constitution. Judicial Review is not found in all the countries.

The Judicial Review first originated in United States of America in the context of the judgement given by the Supreme Court in the Marbury-Madison dispute in the beginning of the nineteenth century. The courts of law follow different theories, principles and views in reviewing the constitutional viability of the laws. The Judicial Review is based on the following theories which can be studied in detail in higher classes.

Theory of the efficiency of law.
Theory of separation of powers.
Theory of constitutional dynamism.
Theory of activity.
Theory of decision by experience.
Theory of constitutional development.

Question 4.
Write brief note on Rule of Law.
Answer:
Rule of law is a unique feature of British constitution. It at first originated in England later many states like India and the United States have adopted this feature. Rule of law is purely based on the principle of common law. It denotes that law should be general in form. It should be uniformly applicable to all the citizens living in a state. There should not be different types of law for various sections of the community. In other words the government must treat all the citizens equally as per the law.

The governance and administration in a particular state should be carried on in accordance with the laws. A.V Dicey in his “Law of the constitutions” (1885) gave a precise explanation of the rule of law. According to him, rule of law stands for equality before the law. This implies equal subjection of all classes including the officials or common man. Law makes no discrimination between individuals. A.V Dicey says that “Every official from Prime Minister to the attender, all are equal before the law”.

Therefore, Rule of law is helpful to all the citizens in protecting their responsibilities in a more effective manner. The constitution of India too recognizes the Rule of law as a basic feature of India constitution. The Supreme Court of India time and again declared Rule of law as a basic Structure of Indian Constitution. Articles 14 to 21 of the Indian Constitution have incorporated the spirit of this concept. However, the scope of this concept is gradually shrinking owing to the over burdening of legislative work with enormous functions. On the whole, the cardinal virtue of Rule of law is that “All are equal before law and no one must arbitrarily be punished” constitutes the core value of any democratic system in the world.

Question 5.
What is Judicial Activism?
Answer:
According to the idea of judicial activism judges should use their powers to correct injustices, especially when the other branches a Government do not act to do so. The courts play an active role in shaping social policy on such issues as civil rights, political unfairness protection of individual rights and public morality.

Judicial activism is policy making function of judiciary in competition with poilcy making by the legislative and executive. This element is associated with the doctrine of judicial review. The essence of true judicial activism lies in rendering decisions by the judiciary which are in tune with the temper and tempo of the times.

Behind every judicial decision, judicial activism and judicial restraint are the two aspects that describe the philosophy and motivation. The concept of judicial activism is the polar opposite of judicial restraint. Judicial activism refers to a theory of judgement that takes into account the spirit of the law and the changing times, whereas judicial restraint relies on a strict interpretation of the law and the importance of legal precedent.

Judicial activism is a dynamic process of judicial outlook in a changing society. Arthur Schlesinger jr. introduced the term ‘Judicial activism’ in 1947. According to Black’s Law Dictionary, “Judicial activism is a judicial philosophy which motivates judges to depart from traditional precedents in favour of progressive and new social policies”.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
How many organs of government are there? What are they?
Answer:
The powers of Government are separated among these three organs – legislature, executive and judiciary. They are inter-related and sometimes independent of each other. Political philosophers like Cicero, Jean Bodin and John Locke wrote treatises on the inter-relationship of three organs of government.

Question 2.
What is meant by the theory of separation of powers?
Answer:
Montesquieu stated that concentration of powers in one person or a body of persons would result in despotism and negate individual liberty. He suggested separation of powers among the three organs of government in a balanced manner. Every organ must check the misuse of powers of other organs. Then only individuals enjoy their liberties without fear from the governmental interference.

Question 3.
What is meant by Plural Executive?
Answer:
Among various types of Executive, Plural Executive is one. If the executive powers are exercised by a body of persons having co-equal authority, it is called “Plural Executive”. The Swiss Federal Council and the President in the former U.S.S.R. are the examples of Plural Executives. This Plural Executive combines the merits of both the parliamentary and the presidential executives, avoiding their defects.

Question 4.
What is independence of the Judiciary?
Answer:
Independence of judiciary implies an opportunity to the judges to perform their duties without fear or favour and act impartially. The judges should have no relation with the legislature and the executive. Both the organs should not interfere in the functioning of the judiciary. It should be protected from political pressure and influence. Otherwise, the very purpose of judiciary stands defeated.

Question 5.
What is Judicial Review?
Answer:
It is the power of a court to enquire whether a law passed by legislature or executive order or other official action is in accordance with the constitution or not If a law, or order or action is against the constitution then the court declares it as “Unconstitutional” and “Invalid”. The Judicial Review power originated in the USA in 1803. The American Supreme God Court and the Indian Supreme Court are some of the courts having this power.

Question 6.
Senate.
Answer:
Senate is the Upper House of United States Congress, which is a small group of elected people who decide the laws of the country. It consists of 100 members. Every U.S. state elects two people to represent them in the U.S. Senate. These people are called senators.

Question 7.
Council of States
Answer:
Council of States is the Upper House of Indian Parliament. It is also known as the Rajya Sabha. It consists of 250 members out of them 238 members are elected by the members of state legislative assemblies through the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote. The remaining 12 members are nominated by the President of India from the fields of Arts, Literature, Social Service, Cooperative Movement, Science and Technology. It is a permanent house and it can never be dissolved. Each member shall remain in office for a period of 6 years. For every 2 years 1/3 of its members shall retire.

Question 8.
House of lords.
Answer:
The House of Lords, also known as The House of peers, is the upper House of the parliament of the United Kingdom. Membership is granted by appointment or else by heredity. Like the House of common, it meets in the palace of West Minister. Currently, there are 300 members in the House of Lords members of whom 240 are Elected members and 60 appointed. Independent members upto 12 Church of England Bishops may sit in the House as ex officio Lords spiritual. Elected members will serve a single non-renewable term of 15 years.

Question 9.
Independent Judiciary.
Answer:
Independence of Judiciary implies an opportunity to the Judges to perform their duties without fear or favour and act impartially. The Judges should have no relation with the Legislature and the Executive. Both the organs should not interfere in the functioning of the Judiciary. It should be protected from political pressure and influence. Otherwise the very purpose of Judiciary stands defeated.

Question 10.
Parliamentary Executive.
Answer:
A parliamentary System of government means that the Executive branch of government has the direct or indirect support of the parliament. This support is usually shown by a vote of confidence. The Relationship between the executive and the Legislature in a parliamentary system is called Responsible government. According to this system, there is a President who is the formal Head of the State, and the Prime Minister and the council of ministers, which run the government.

Question 11.
What is Uni-bicameralism?
Answer:
In government, the first organ is the Legislature, it may be unicameral or Bicameral. Unicameralism is derived from two Latin words namely uni, which means one, and camera, which means, the chamber is the practice of having one Legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a unicameral parliament of the unicameral legislature is a legislature that consists of one chamber or house.
Ex.: Armenia, Bulgaria, Denmark, Sweden etc.

Question 12.
What is Bi-bicameralism?
Answer:
‘Bi’ means two and Cameral means house or chamber. If a Legislature consists of two houses or chambers, it is called a Bi-cameral legislature, and such an arrangement is called Bi-cameralism. The bi-cameral legislature is necessary for a federal government as the second chamber gives representation to the states. In the Bi-cameral setup, the upper house is less powerful than the lower house.
Ex.: Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha in India, Senate and House of Representatives in America.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 3 Nation, Nationality and Nationalism

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 3rd Lesson Nation, Nationality and Nationalism Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 3rd Lesson Nation, Nationality and Nationalism

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Nationality. Explain the Essential Elements of Nationality. [Mar. ’17]
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationality have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feeling prior to the two world wars.

The Events that took place in the erstwhile Soviet Union, ethnic Riots between Serbians and croatians in the former Yugoslavia, the unification of East and west Germanies, the peace talks between Israel and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) on West Asia etc., reflect the serious concern of the people for realising Nationality and Nation States.

Meaning :
The Word “Nation” is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common Descent”.

Definitions :
1. R.G. Gettle :
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of Race, Language, Religion, Traditions and History.

2. J.H. Rose :
“Nationality is a union of Hearts once made and never unmade”.

3. J.W. Garner :
“Nationality is a group or portion of population which is united by Racial and other bonds”.

Essential Elements of Nationality :
1) Purity of Race :
Racial purity helps in the formation and strengthening of the idea of Nationality. Race is a physical phenomenon. It depends on certain distinctions of skull, stature, hair, complexion etc. These distinctions serve as a cementing bond among the members of a group.

But we should remember that common race is not an indispensable factor in the growth of Nationality. Modem races are so mixed that none of them can claim to be pure. Pure races have disappeared because of wars and migrations. Racial purity is now a myth only.
Ex : Canada and United states have transformed into single nations inspite of their racial diversities in their respective populations. Similarly, Australia and Britain are two distinct Nations although they belong to one racial stock.

2) Common Language :
Language plays a key role in the promotion of nationality. The philosophers and scientists said that common language is essential for the development of nationality. Language is a medium to express all their feelings. It helps to express one’s ownselves to have cordial relations and to share the miseries and happiness in a group languages also promotes common feelings and traditions. Common language promotes the feeling of oneness and keeps the entire race on single track.

3) Common Religion :
Religion is one important factor to strengthen nationality. There are many instances when people of different nationalities with common religion remain citizens in the same state. For instance, the main reason for the partition of Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 lies in the religion.

4) Geographical Unity :
Geographical unity is necessary for the emergence of nationality. Nationality sentiments prevail and develop among the people living in a single geographical area. The people residing in such an area love, worship their country and make sacrifices for the sake of their motherland. People, who belong to one religion, converse the same language, same race living in a geographical area inculcate and improve their riationality sentiments. The formation of Israel in 1946 was purely due to the feelings of the hitherto wandering Jewish people to live in a single geographical area. Hence their desire of live in a territory made them united. This ultimately transformed them as patriotic persons.

5) Common History :
Common History is considered as an important element of Na-tionality. It invokes an inspiration among the people and binds them together. Some historical incidents may give a chance to the people .to develop national sentiments.
Ex : Indians have learnt the lessons of Nationalism from the British legacy.

6) Common Culture :
Culture in its broad sense means a way of life. It is reflected through certain common elements like dress, customs, conventions, food habits, religious beliefs, ethical values etc. They easily develop into a single Nation. These elements bind the people together and hold together.

7) Common Political aspirations :
Nationality sentiments prevail and develop among the people having common political aspirations. The political ideas, conventions and institutions which were formed due to the single political rule will have a considerable impact and influence over the people. For instance, the Swiss people love very much their direct democratic devices in political matters. Similarly the Americans express the feeling of worship towards their constitution. The British people also feel proud of their political and judicial institutions like rule of law, parliamentary democracy and judicial review etc.

8) Common Economic ties :
This element of nationality has been stressed by ‘Karl Marx’. Since then onwards the importance of this element has been increasing. The Russians have great regard for their economic system, eventhough there exist diversities. Their unflinching love for socialism inspired nationalism among them. They successfully repulsed the attacks of Germany during the Second World War. Thus the common economic ties made them united and integrated them into a nation.

Question 2.
Discuss the relation between Nation and Nationalism.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationalism have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feelings prior to the two world wars.

Meaning :
The word “Nation” and “Nationalism” are used as complementary to each other.

The word Nation is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common descent”.

Nation :
“Nation is a Nationality which has organised itself into a political body, either independent or desiring to be independent”.

Nationalism :
“Nationalism is a state of mind in which the supreme loyalty of the individual is felt to be due to the Nation state.”

Relationship between “Nation” and “Nationalism”:

Nationalism is a psychological feeling prevailing in the minds of the people.
People through the feeling of Nationalism sacrifice all their interests for the sake of their Nation.
The strong desire of the people of a nationality to emerge aS a nation state is nationalism.
The seeds of nationalism originated in the cultural renaissance of Europe in 16^th century.
In French Revolution (1789) pushed”the nationalism further in Europe and took to the great heights.
The Vienna congress (1815) further supported the cause of nationalism in Europe.
The Italian and German unifications boosted the cause of nationalism.
The American War of Independence (1774) was a great leap forward in spreading nationalism among the people.
The much publicized theory of Nation’s self-determination of Woodrow Wilson in 1917 was further generated hope among the people of the world to form Nation States.
The two world wars completed to redraft the European map with the formation of Nation-states.
The Freedom struggles and national aspiration of the people of the Asia, Africa and Latin America are fulfilled with the formation of Nation states immediately after the end of II-World war.
The Indian national movement from 1885 to 1947 had fulfilled with the formation of India and Pakistan as an Independent States.

In this regard, we can understand that the feeling of nationalism when it acquires unity and independence. It becomes a Sovereign Nation.

There were some writers who treated the two terms as synonymous.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Briefly explain the essential elements .of Nationality.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationality have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feeling prior to the two world wars.

Meaning :
The Word “Nation” is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common Descent”.

Definitions :
1. R.G. Gettle :
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of Race, Language, Religion, Traditions and History.

2. J.H. Rose :
“Nationality is a union of Hearts once made and never unmade”.

3. J.W. Garner :
“Nationality is a group or portion of population which is united by Racial and other bonds”.

5) Common History :
Common History is considered as an important element of Nationality. It invokes an inspiration among the people and binds them together. Some historical incidents may give a chance to the people .to develop national sentiments.
Ex : Indians have learnt the lessons of Nationalism from the British legacy.

8) Common Economic ties :
This element of nationality has been stressed by ‘Karl Marx’. Since then onwards the importance of this element has been increasing. The Russians have great regard for their economic system, even though there exist diversities. Their unflinching love for socialism inspired nationalism among them. They successfully repulsed the attacks of Germany during the Second World War. Thus the common economic ties made them united and integrated them into a nation.

Question 2.
In what way do “Nation” and “State” differ from each other?
Answer:
Several Nation-States came into existence after the two world wars, on the basis of the principle of self-determination. The terms “Nation” and “State” were used synonymously. Even the political experts used both these words homogeneously and intermixingly as if both had same meaning. However, in practice both these terms are not same and identical.

Nation :
“Nation is a nationality which has organized itself into a political body either Independent or desiring to be independent”.

State :
“State is a people organized for law within definite territory”.

Differences:
The concepts of Nation and State differ from one another from the following points of view:

Nation	State
1) Nation is an independent political community or an integral part of a multi-national state.	1) State may consist of the people of the same nation or many nations.
2) Nation preceeds the state.	2) State follows the nation. The final form of a nation is the accomplishment of statehood.
3) Nation is historical and cultural in its evolution.	3) State is political and legal structure.
4) Nation is the community of people who exist together for a common goal and who were united by psychological feeling of oneness.	4) State is a people organised by law in a definite territory.
5) Nation is the culmination of a long coexistence of the people.	5) State need not be evolutionary in nature. It may come into existence either by unification of the smaller independent political communities or by partition.

Question 3.
Describe the tnerits of Nationalism.
Answer:
The Nationalist charactor of the Modern State has the following merits.

Nationalism removed the mutual differences, personal animosities and internal feeds. It promoted unity integrity and solidarity among the people of a nation. It enabled them io understand the neighbour’s point of view. So, it promoted closer understanding among the people.
Nationalism made the people obey the government.
It helped in achieving the progress of a nation in a short period.
It accelerated the pace of the development of the state. It provided a democratic bare to the government and those strengthened the administrative system.
It is anti-imperialistic. So it does not allow economic exploitation.
It secured political stability and peacefull social atmosphere.

Question 4.
What are the differences between Nation and Nationality.
Answer:
The concepts of Nation and Nationality laid formidable foundations to several modem political systems.
Nation:
“Nation is a nationality which has organised itself into a political body either independent or desiring to be independent”.

Nationality:
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of race, language, religion, traditions and history”.

Differences between Nation and Natipnality :

Nation	Nationality
1) Nation is a political concept.	1) Nationality is a psychological feeling.
2) Nation is always a politically organised state.	2) Nationality is always an unorganised and flexible feeling.
3) Nation is always independent.	3) Nationality is not independent.
4) There can’t be a nation without nationaltiy.	4) There can be nationality without a nation.
5) People who form into a nation should obey the laws of the state.	5) Untill the people of nationality form into a nation. There can’t be constitutional laws. But they oblige certain common rules, in their best interests.

Question 5.
Write a short notes on National Self-Determination.
Answer:
The theory of national self-determination was advocated by the former president of the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson in 1917. From then onwards nationalism became a world-wide phenomenon. This principle implies that every nation should be organised as an independent political entity. It raises the question whether every nationality has the right to be a self-governing or sovereign state. .

Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern themselves and determine their future development. In making this claim, a nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international community of its status as a distinct political entity or state. Quite often these claims come from the people who lived together in a given land for a long period having sense of common identity. Such claims of self-determination were frequently, made in the 19th century in Europe. The nation of one culture – one state began to gain acceptability at that time. Subsequently, this idea was employed while reordering state boundaries after the first World war. The treaty of Versailles led to the formation of several small and newly independent states.

The Right to national self-determination has asserted the National liberation movements in Asia and Africa when they were struggling against colonial rule. Nationalist movements maintained that political independence would ensure dignity and recognition to the colonised people.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Nationality?
Answer:
Nationality is derived from the Latin word “Natio”, which means birth. It is a spiritual sentiment or feeling of oneness. This emotional feeling of oneness or unity is caused due to factors like common race, common language, common religion, common territory, common history and culture, common political aspirations etc. Nationality is not politically organised. There can be no nation without nationality.

Question 2.
Define Nation.
Answer:
Nation is derived from two Latin words – “Nates” and “Natio” which means birth. Lord Bryce defined it as “A Nation is a nationality which has organised itself into a political body, either independent or desiring to be independent. “It means that the people of country are called as a National if they are united by characteristics of nationality and have a strong desire for political independence or if they are politically free.

Question 3.
Write any two differences between Nation and State. [Mar. ’17]
Answer:

Nation	State
1. Nation is an independent political community or an integral part of a Multi-National state.	1. State may consist of the people of the same Nation or many nations.
2. Nation is Historical and cultural in its evolution.	2. State is a political and Legal structure.

Question 4.
Mention any two essential elements of Nationality.
Answer:
Nationality is derived from the Latin word “Natio”. Which means birth. It is a spiritual sentiment or feeling or oneness. This emotional feeling of oneness or unity is caused due to factors like common race, common language, common religion, common territory, common history and culture, common political aspirations etc. Nationality is not politically organised. There can be no nation without nationality.

Question 5.
What is the importance of Nationalism?
Answer:
Nationalism is an effective force in modem politics and it played prominent role in the world Affairs. It’s importance can be analysed from the following points.

Nationalism inspired the people and created deep hatredness among the people.
It helped in liberalising the people from oppressive rule.
It became a deciding factor in the breakup of many empires and states.

Question 6.
Write any two merits of Nationalism.
Answer:

Nationalism made the people obey the government.
It helped in achieving the progress of a nation in a short period.

Question 7.
Mention any two de-merits of Nationalism.
Answer:

Nationalism makes the people extremely proud, Jealous, and arrogant as was clear from the history of Germany and Italy.
It leads to unnecessary and unhealthy competition among the nations in economic matters.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 2 State and Sovereignty

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 2nd Lesson State and Sovereignty Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 2nd Lesson State and Sovereignty

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define state and discuss its Essential Features.
Answer:
Introduction :
State is an important political organisation. The study of political science begins and ends with the state. The term state for the first time, was used by an Italian political thinker, Machiavelli in his famous book “The Prince” in 16^th century.

Meaning :
The word state is derived from a Tuetonic word “status” which means political organisation.

Definitions:

“State is a people organised for law within a definite Territory” – Woodrow Wilson.
“State is a politically organised people of a definite Territory” – Bluntschlli.
“State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions. – Harold. J. Laski.

Essential elements of state :
State is the predominant and superior politico – social institution existing in the society. It consists of 4 essential elements. These elements of state may be explained in a detailed way in the following paragraphs.

1) Population :
Population is the fundamental and essential element of state. There can be no state without population. Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and others considered this feature as an important one. The famous poet Sri. Gurajada Apparao also states that it is the people, rather than the land, that comprise the state. Political writers differ in their opinions regarding the exact size of population possessed by the state. While Plato fixed 5,040, Rousseau fixed 10,000 to be an ideal population for a state. But today we can find the countries like China and India which have more than 100 crores of population on one hand and the countries like Andora, San Marino are having small number of people on the other hand is the modem world.

2) Territory :
Territory is another essential element of the state. It is necessary for the origin and existence of the state. There can be no state without territory. Every state must have more or less territory of its own. There is no unanimous opinion among the political writers regarding the size of territory of the state. Some preferred vast territory, where as others preferred small territory. But today we can find the countries like America and Canada having large territory on one hand, and the countries like Vatican, Monaco having very less territory on the other hand in the modem world.

3) Government :
Government is the third essential element of the state. There can be ho state without government. State enforces its authority through the government. Government consists of 3 organs namely
Legislature – Which makes laws
Executive – which implements laws and
Judiciary – which interpretes laws.

Government are of different kinds namely, Unitary, Federal, Parliamentary and Presidential governments. Governments are at different levels like Local, State level and National level.

4) Sovereignty :
Sovereignty is the most essential element of the state. It is spirit and soul of the state. There can be no state without sovereignty. It distinguishes the state from other associations and institutions. Sovereignty is the supreme political power of the state over citizens and subjects.

5) International Recognition :
This is another and recent element of the state. In Modem times many nations have grown and many International organizations have come into being. Therefore some scholars have argued that International Recognition has become an essential element of state.

It should also be recognized as a state by other states. Every state requires recognition of other sovereign states. Such recognition is rendered by some International organizations like the united Nations Organisation. The UNO membership is a means for recognising state’s sovereignty. Whenever a new state comes into existence, it’s recognition by other states and by UNO is considered as very essential.

Question 2.
Discuss Monistic theory of Sovereignty.
Answer:
Introduction :
John Austin was a great EngMsh jurist of eighteenth century. He published a famous book ‘Lectures on Jurisprudence’ in 1832. Austin was the chief exponent of the monistic theory or legal theory of sovereignty. He was influenced by the writings of Hobbes and Bentham.

Main features of John Austin’s Theory:
1) It is Determinate :
Sovereignty is a determinate person or a body of persons. The sovereign need not be a single person alone. The state is legal order wherein there must be a determinate authority. This determinate authority acts as the final source of the power.

2) Sovereign receives habitual obedience :
That the determinate human superior receives habitual obedience from the bulk of society. The obedience should come from the bulk of the society, where the habitual obedience from the bulk of the society is not forthcoming there is no sovereign power.

3) Sovereign is indivisible :
That the sovereign power is not divisible. It is a unified one and therefore cannot be divided. There is no limitation on his sovereignty and it cannot be divided.

4) Sovereignty is essential :
Sovereign power is essential to every political society. A non-sovereign society is neither political nor independent.

5) Law is a command :
Law is a command of the sovereign and whatever may be command is Law. Since it is a command, failure to obey law is to be punished.

6) The subjects have no right against the state :
Rights are those which are legally permitted by the sovereign and upheld by him.

Criticism :
Austin’s monisitc absolute theory of sovereignty has been criticized by many writers like A.VDiecy, H.J.Laski, J.C.Gray. Henry maine, Sidgwick are prominent They criticized this theory on the following grounds.

1. It is Unhistorical :
Henry Maine stated there was no historical evidence for Austin’s therory.

2. Opoose Democracy :
Austin’s theory of sovereignty is against the spirit of democracy becasuse it supported the concept of absolute and relentless sovereignty.

3. Indivisibility not real :
According to Austin indivisibility is an important attribute of sovereignty. This seems to be an unsustainable proposition. In every political society there is a division of functions and without such division no government can be conducted successfully.

4. Sovereignty cannot be located :
Sovereignty in the Austinian sense cannot be located in a modem democratic state.

5. State not supreme :
Austin treated the state as the omnipotent and supreme organization. But that is not real. Stae did not poses, such a characteristic feature. There are several agencies, institutions and organizations in the state. State is one among them. State is not the only organization in human society.

6. Customs and traditions ignored :
Austin’s theory failed to recognize the influence and importance of customs and traditions of the people. It stands that the determinate human superior (having sovereignty) could not exercise the administrative affairs without recognizing the various customs and traditions. But it is a known fact that customs and traditions have been influencing the law making process since ancient period.

Conclusion :
Inspite of the above criticism, Austin’s theory is recognized as significance in political science. It has acquired special place in political science and in jurisprudence in a short time.

Question 3.
Discuss pluralistic theory of Sovereignty.
Answer:
Pluralism or pluralistic theory of sovereignty was proposed and popularized as an attack on monism. Elements like democracy, federal spirit, individual freedoms, separation of powers, decentralization of authority etc. are considered as the factors which influenced the proponents of pluralism. This theory finds its origin during the middle age.

Main Principles:
Pluralism comprises the following main principles :

The state is one of the many organizations in society. It is not the only organization having supremacy. It has no different features, status and significance apart from other organizations.
The state has not created the society or any organization. The various cultural, economic, religious and political associations were not created by the state. State cannot dissolve the above organizations. It has no such power.
Society is federal in structure. State too must distribute its powers on the basis of federal principle.
Sovereignty is not the exclusive possession of the state. The state is not supreme over all other organizations.
Sovereignty is not absolute, unlimited and unquestionable. It has some internal and external limitations. While the customs and traditions of the people will act as internal limitations, international covenants and agreements will impose some restrictions on the sovereignty of the state.
Sovereignty is not discretionary in nature. It has to be enforced keeping in view the various constitutional acts and covenants. It will not vest in the state alone.
It is not correct to say that the commands of the sovereign are laws. Sovereignty has to be exercised keeping in view the customs, traditions and the constitutional provisions.
Pluralists criticized that Austin’s theory assigned more importance to the state. This may threaten the very origin, existence, survival and progress of the remaining associations in human society. Hence Krabbe and Laski pointed out that it is better to ignore the criticism of sovereignty.

Criticism :
1) Inspite of the above criticism, pluralistic theory of sovereignty is recognized as very important in political science. Similarly the concept of state and Monistic theory of sover-eignty have acquired special place in political science.

Main Principles:
Pluralism comprises the following main principles.

The state is one of the many organizations in society, it is not the only organization having supremacy. It has no different features, status and significance apart from other organizations.
The state has not created the society or any organization. The various cultural, economic, religious and political associations were not created by the state. State cannot dissolve the above organizations. It has no, such power.
Society is federal in structure. State too must distribute its poowers on the basis of federal principle.
Sovereignty is not the exclusive possession of the state. The state is not supreme over all other organizations.
Sovereignty is not absolute, unlimited and unquestionable. It has some internal and external limitations. While the customs and traditions of the people will act as internal limitations, international covenants and agreements will impose some restrictions on the sovereignty of the state.
Sovereignty is not discretionary in nature. It has to be enforced keeping in view the various constitutional acts and covenants. It will not vest in the state alone.
It is not correct to say that the commands of the sovereign are laws. Sovereignty has to be exercised keeping in view the customs, traditions and the constitutional provisions.
Pluralists criticized that Austin’s theory assigned more importance to the state. This may threaten the very origin, existence, survival and progress of the remaining associations in human society. Hence Krabbe and Laski pointed out that it is better to ignore the criticism of sovereignty.

Criticism:

The pluralist’s contention that sovereignty is possessed by all associations along with the state has been condemned by the critics. The critics expressed their apprehension stating that the pluralist’s ideas may lead to the creation of anarchy and instability in the state.
The pluralist’s asumption of similarity of state and other associations in regard to their aims objectives, and aspirations is not appropriate.
The plujralist failed to identity the distinction between the community, society and state. There prevails more similarity rather than differences between the state and society. Both the state and society are independent in their sphere. They are more heterogeneous in their nature.
The critics viewed pluralism as unreal and iihpractical. They felt that it is not possible to achieve coordination between the state and associations.

Conclusion :
Inspite of the above criticism, pluralistic theory of sovereignty is recognized as very important in political science. Similarly, the concept of state and Monistic theory of sovereignty have acquired special place in political science.

Quwstion 4.
What is Sovereignty and explain its Characteristic features.
Answer:
Introduction :
Sovereignty is the most important characteristic of the modem state. Today all the modem states are the nation states. Sovereignty is their main element. The state is distinguished from other associations or institutions only by sovereign power. The state is qualified to exercise its power on account of sovereignty alone.

Definitions :
The word sovereignty has been defined by different writers in different ways. Some definitions are mentioned as follows :

Willoughby :
“Sovereignty is the supreme will of the state”.

Blackstone :
“Sovereignty is the irresistible, absolute, uncontrolled and suthority in which the supreme legal power resides.”

Jean Bodin :
“Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”.

Characteristics of sovereignty;
The following are the main characteristic of sovereignty :

Absoluteness
Universality
Permanence
Inalienability
Indivisibility
Exclusiveness

1) Absoluteness :
Sovereignty is the absolute power of the state, within the sphere of the state, there is no other power over and above sovereignty. It is subject to no legal limitations within or without. No other state can control the policies and actions of a particular state. If there are certain boundaries or limitations to the sovereignty of state, they are only self imposed. But, the absolute sovereign power of the state is questioned by writers like Maitland raised some objections over this characteristic feature of sovereignty. They stated that the various customs and traditions of the people within the state and international obligations outside of the state will act as limitations on the sovereignty of the state.

2) Universality :
The sovereignty is universal in character. It is applicable to all persons and organizations within the geographical boundaries of a state. The sovereign power makes no exception, and grants, no exemption to any individual or group. However, the state may provide certain safeguards or exemptions to the diplomats because of the need for promoting peace, friendship and goodwill among the nations on reciprocal basis.

Further, the foreign diplomats are subject to the laws of their own state, therefore, the diplomatic personnel, the foreign tourists, and the foreign heads of the states are given certain immunities. We must also note that the state is free to withdraw the privileges extended to these foreign dignitaries.

3) Permanence :
Sovereignty is a permanent feature of a state. Sovereignty continues as long as the state continues in existence. Government may change periodically or frequently, but state will not change because state is permanent and the government is temporary. To quote Gamer, it does not cease with the “death or temporary dispossession of a particular bearer or the reorganization of the state, but shifts from one point of a physical body to another, when it undergoes external change “According to Grilchrist, It is only a personal change in the government not a break in the continuity of the state”.

This is the reason why people in England used to say “The King is dead, long live the King”. It means the Kingship is immortal and the king is mortal.

4) Inalienability :
Sovereignty is inalienable. It cannot be transferred to another state or organization. The obvious reason is that if the sovereign transfers its supreme power, it no longer remains the sovereign. This can be said that state and sovereignty go hand in hand, no state can claim to remain a state if it has parted and alienate its sovereignty. It is like a ‘soul’ that cannot be separated from ‘body’ and vice-versa.

5) Indivisibility :
Sovereignty cannot be divided. It is indivisible. Division of sovereignty amounts to destruction of sovereignty. Each state can have only one supreme will. The concept of divided sovereignty is against to the notion of sovereignty. There will be only one sovereign authority in a slate. All other organizations and institutions remain subordinate to the state.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain any four kinds of Sovereignly.
Answer:
Introduction :
Sovereignty is the most important characteric of the modem state. The state is distinguished from other Associations or Institutions only by sovereign power. Definition:

Willoughby :
“Sovereignty is the supreme will of the state”.

Jean Bodin :
“Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”.

Kinds of Sovereignty :
Sovereignty is classified into several kinds as mentioned below ;

Nominal sovereignty
Real sovereignty
Legal sovereignty
Political sovereignty
Popular sovereignty
Dejure sovereignty
Defacto sovereignty

1) Nominal sovereignty :
Nominal sovereignty is also known as titular sovereignty. Nomial sovereignty implies possession of sovereign powers only in name. The Queen in Britain, the Emperor of Japan, the President of India etc., are some examples of nominal sovereignty.

2) Real sovereignty :
The real sovereign actually possesses the sovereign power. He discharges such authority on behalf of the nominal sovereign head. Accordingly the nominal soverign person exercises his powers only on the advice of the real sovereign persons or body of persons. The Prime Ministers of England and India etc., are some best examples of this kind of sovereignty.

3) Legal sovereignty :
Legal Sovereignty denotes the supremacy in terms of formal law. Only the legal sovereign is competent to issue the highest orders. It transcends even the divine law or the normal laws and the public opinion. The court of law recognizes only the legal sovereign and accepts its orders. The best example of legal sovereign is the king- in-parliament in England. The legal sovereignty is definite, deliberate, decisive and precisely known. The president of India is also an example of legal sovereignty.

4) Political sovereignty :
Behind the legal sovereignty there is the political sovereignty. In a democratic state while the legal sovereign is the supreme law making power; there is behind it another sovereign whose will is the ultimate and final source of authority. Gamer observes: “Behind the legal sovereign, however, is another power, legally unknown, unorganized, and incapable of expressing the will of the state in the form of legal command, yet with a power to those mandates the legal sovereign will in practice bow and whose will must ultimately prevail in the state.

5) Popular sovereignty :
The concept of popular sovereignty is different from that of political sovereignty. It means that sovereignty ultimately resides in the people. The doctrine of popular sovereignty is the product of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It emerged as an expression of resentment of the people against the despotic authority of the kings and their reliance on the theory of Divine Right. Popular sovereignty attributes ultimate sovereignty to the people. This theory, first hinted by the John Locke, was later expounded by Rousseau and it becomes the slogan of the French Revolution.

6) Dejure sovereignty :
The term ‘De Jure’ denotes authority exercised according to law. De Jure sovereignty is the power possessed and exercised by a legally competent authority. It issues orders and enjoys command overall persons, institutions and organizations in the state. The Queen in Britain and the President in India are some examples of the De Jure sovereignty.

7) De facto sovereignty :
The French term ‘De facto’ implies ‘real’. De facto sovereign is a person or a body of persons who exercise such authority in the last resort and at the final stage. De facto sovereign may not be a legal sovereign. His authority is based not on law but on physical force. De facto sovereign may be a king, dictator or religious priest.

Question 2.
Explain the difference between State and Government.
Answer:

State	Government
1. State is broader. It consists of all the people.	1. Government is narrower. It is a body of few citizens.
2. State is permanent.	2. But Government is transitory. Government keeps on changing. For ex: In India NDA at the national level has been replaced by the UPA.
3. State has sovereign power.	3. Government does not have sovereignty. But, Governments exercise the sovereign power in the name of state.
4. All states are universal and similar in nature and characteristics.	4. Government differs from state to state depending upon the wishes of the people or the constitutions of the respective states. For ex : Parliamentary, Presidential Govt etc.
5. Loyalty of the citizens to their state is compulsory.	5. In a democracy, people have the right to critize the acts of omission and commission of the Government.
6. State is a whole. It consists of four essential elements like population, territory, government and sovereignty.	6. Government is one of the four elements of the state. Hence, it is the part and parcel of the state.
7. The state is master; it can place and replace the governments according to their efficiency and popularity.	7. The status of the government in relation to the state is that of a master and servant. The survival of the Government depends on the pleasure of the state.
8. Membership of the State is Compulsory. No one is exempted from its membership.	8. Membership of the Government is not compulsory. ‘It depends upon the will of the person concerned to become the member of the Government or not.

Question 3.
What are the differences between State and Association?
Answer:

State	Association
1. The state is permanent.	1. Associations are temporary.
2. The state has sovereign power.	2. Associations cannot have sovereignty.
3. The state has fixed boundaries. No state is universal or world-wide.	3. The associations cannot have fixed territorial boundaries. Some associations are international and universal in character. Ex: U.N.O., Red cross Society, The Lions International etc.
4. The membership of state is compulsory. Every citizen naturally becomes the member of the state.	4. But the membership of an association is optional. It depends on the will and wish of the people.
5. A man can become a member of one state only at a time.	5. But they can be member of any number as associations as he desires.
6. The state makes the laws, violation of which is visited by punishment.	6. The associations cannot make laws, but makes their own rules and regulations.
7. The aim of state is broader.	7. The aim of the Associations is limited.
8. The state is superior to all associations.	8. May associations in a state which live and depend on the mercy and pleasure of the state.

Question 4.
Explain John Anstin’s theory of sovereignty.
Answer:
Introduction :
John Austin was a great English jurist of eighteenth century. He published a famous book ‘Lectures on Jurisprudence’ in 1832. Austin was the chief exponent of the monistic theory or legal theory of sovereignty. He was influenced by the writings of Hobbes and Bentham.

Main features of John Austin’s Theory :
1) It is Determinate :
Sovereignty is a determinate person or a body of persons. The sovereign need not be a single person alone. The state is legal order wherein there must be a determinate authority. This determinate authority acts as the final source of the power.

3) Sovereign is indivisible :
That the sovereign power is not divisible. It is a unified one and therefore cannot be divided. There is no limitation on his sovereignty and it cannot be divided.

4) Sovereignty is essential :
Sovereign power is essential to every political society. A non-sovereign society is neither political nor independent.

5) Law is a command :
Law is a command of the sovereign and whatever may be com-mand is Law. Since it is a command, failure to obey law is to be punished.

6) The subjects have no right against the state :
Rights are those which are legally permitted by the sovereign and upheld by him.

Question 5.
Explain pluralistic theory of Sovereignty.
Answer:
Pluralism or pluralistic theory of sovereignty was proposed and popularized as an attack on John Austin’s monism. Von Gierke, Maitland, Ernest Barker, H.J. Laski, G.D.H cole, Maciver and others have proposed and popularized the theory.

Main principles :
Pluralism comprises the following main principles :

The state is one of the many organizations in society. It is not the only organization having supremacy. It has no different features, status and significance apart from other organizations.
The state has not created the society or any organization. The various cultural, economic, religious and political associations were not created by the state. State cannot dissolve the above organizations. It has no such power.
Society is federal in structure. State too must distribute its powers on the basis of federal principle.
Sovereignty is not the exclusive possession of the state. The state is not supreme over all other organizations.
Sovereignty is not absolute, unlimited and unquestionable. It has some internal and external limitations. While the customs and traditions of the people will act as internal limitations, international covenants and agreements will impose some restrictions on the sovereignty of the state.
Sovereignty is not discretionary in nature. It has to be enforced keeping in view the various constitutional acts and covenants. It will not vest in the state alone.
It is not correct to say that the commands of the sovereign are laws. Sovereignty has to be exercised keeping in view the customs, traditions and the constitutional provisions.
Pluralists criticized that Austin’s theory assigned more importance to the state. This may threaten the very origin, existence, survival and progress of the remaining associations in human society. Hence Krabbe and Laski pointed out that it is better to ignore the criticism of sovereignty.

Question 6.
What are the differences between State and Society?
Answer:

State	Society
1. State is political organization.	1. Society is a social organization
2. Whereas the state has its own fixed territory and limits.	2. Society does not have definite territorial boundaries.
3. The state has a definite Government.	3. Society does not have any legal and prescribed organization.
4. State possesses the power of compulsion. Disobedience to its laws is followed by punishment.	4. Society does not enjoy the power compulsion. Disobedience to its principles is not followed by any physical punishment.
5. State alone has sovereignty. It operates through the instruments of compulsion and coercion. It uses force to implement its laws and policies.	5. Society does not possess sovereignty. It is supported by social customs, conventions and morality. It has no coercive power.
6. State is not a natural organization. It is an artificial institution. Its membership is compulsory for individuals.	6. Society is a voluntary and natural organization. Individuals acquire its membership on discretionary basis.
7. State derives its strength mainly from laws and the constitution.	7. Society derives its strength from customs, conventions and traditions.
8. State regulates only the external relation of men in society. State formulates rules in this regard.	8. Society controls both internal and external activities of the individual. Society regulates all forms of social conduct.
9. The laws and rules of state are definite and clear. They are made by the legislature.	9. The rules of the society are not so clear. They are generally ambiguous and vague. They are based on customs and conventions.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is State?
Answer:
The term ‘State is comparatively modem. To the Greeks the term was not known. They used the word ‘Polis’ which we translate, as ‘City State’. Ancient Romans used the word ‘Civitas’ for State. After the disintegration of the great Roman Empire towards the end of the fifth century, the Teutonic tribes established their principalities and they used the word ‘Status’ from which the English word ‘State’ is derived. Thus the word Status is a Teutonic word. The exact meaning of the status is society.

Question 2.
What is Government?
Answer:
Government :
Government is the third essential element of the state. There can be no state without government. State enforces its authority through the government. Government consists of 3 organs namely
Legislature – which makes laws
Executive – which implements laws and
Judiciary – which interpretes laws.

Question 3.
What is Society?
Answer:
Society :
Society is a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests and aspirations.

Question 4.
Monistic theory of Sovereignty.
Answer:
“Monistic theory of sovereignty was advocated by John Austin, an eminent British Jurist in his famous book” Lectures on Juris prudence in 1832. According to John Austin Sovereignty is a determinate person. This determinate Authority acts as the final source of the power. The determinate human superior receives habitual obedience from the bulk of society. The sovereign power is not divisible. It is a unified one and therefore cannot be divided. There is no limitation on his sovereignty and it cannnot be divided.

Question 5.
Pluralistic theory of Sovereignty.
Answer:
Pluralism opposes Austin’s theory of sovereignty. It says state’s sovereignty is not absolute. State is also an Association and the individual is benefited by many Associations. Pluralists want decentralisation of authority and limited functions of the state. Sovereignty is divisible and it is not the source of law. Von Gierke, H.I. Laski, Ernest barker, Maciver, G.D.H cole, Maitland were the exponents of pluralism.

Question 6.
Internal Sovereignty.
Answer:
Internally sovereign has supremacy over all other institutions and associations within Territoraial limits of that state. It also implies that sovereign power is above all laws in the state. All Liberties and Rights of Individuals in the state are only due to sovereign.

Question 7.
External Sovereignty.
Answer:
External sovereignty means freedom from external control and obligations and that in the International field the state is autonomous and has an independent voice. Each state is independent of other state. Any other state does not reserve any right to interfere with the external matter of an independent state. External sovereignty means National Freedom.

Question 8.
‘De – jure’ Sovereignty.
Answer:
The term ‘De – Jure’ denotes authority exercised according to law. Dejure sovereign is the power possessed and exercised by a legally competent authority. It issues orders and enjoys command over all persons, institutions and organisations. In the state. The Queen in Britain and the president in India are examples of the De-Jure sovereignty.

Question 9.
‘De-facto sovereignty.
Answer:
The French term ‘DeFacto’ implies ‘Real’. A de-facto sovereign is a person or a body of persons who exercise such authority in the last resort and at the final stage, Defacto sovereign may not be a legal sovereign. His authority is based not on law but on physical force. DeFacto sovereign may be a king. Dictator or Religious priest.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 9 Secularism

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 9th Lesson Secularism Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 9th Lesson Secularism

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Secularism and explain the conceptions of Secularism.
Answer:
Introduction :
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a Modem State. Secular State explains the relation between the State and Religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority over the state affairs.

Meaning :
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of Religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G.J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Conceptions of Secularism :
Secularism has many conceptions. Some of them may be explained as below :

1. Secularism a humanistic and atheistic philosophy :
Secularism has several personal, cultural, political and social implications. It was humanistic in nature as it seeks the well being of human beings. It assigns importance to the saying that man is the measure of all things. It neither supports nor opposes religion. It allows individuals with the discretion of choosing and following their religion.

2. Political and social dimension :
Secularism has certain political and social dimensions. It stands for the achievement of autonomous political and social order having naturalistic and materialistic perspectives. It allows religious freedom in the matters of family, association and society.

3. Liberty and democracy :
Secularism serves as a beneficial element of liberty and democracy. It also acts as the basis of liberal democracy. It strongly opposes the existence, continuance and survival of authoritarian religious leaders and institutions. It advocated democracy and decentralisation of governmental powers.

4. Opposition to religion :
Secularism is vehemently opposed to the supporting of religion in public matters. It condemned the presence and dominance of eclesiastical authorities. It relegated religion to unimportant matters of life. It considered that people could follow their rituals without affecting the peace and order in society Individuals must carry on their religious activities without causing harm, hatred and ill-will among the followers of other religious denominations. They must consider the noble aims and aspirations of the makers of the constitution.

Question 2.
Explain the merits of Secularism.
Answer:
Introduction :
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a Modem State. Secular State explains the relation between the State and Religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority over the state affairs.

Meaning :
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G.J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Merits of Secularism :
The following are some of the important merits of secularism.

1. Equality :
Secularism forms as the basis of equalitarian society. It treats the people belonging to all religious denominations as equal. It gives no recognition to the man made’ inequalities and. discriminations based on caste, colour, community, region, religion, language, race etc. People will have a strong favourable impression towards the nation.

2. Religious freedom :
Secularism enables the individuals to enjoy their religious freedom to their full extent. The state will not interfere in the religious affairs of individuals. The Constitution and various laws in a Secular State will provide individuals with complete freedom to embrance, profess, practice and propagate any religion as they like.

3. Law and order :
Now a days one can observe unhappy, miserable and pro-religious movements that are organized by different sections of government, state and other department. The maintenance of communal harmony became a challenging task for the state in pacifying the feelings the people belonging to various religious denominations. Secularism avoids communal clashes and religious bigotry and animosities in the society. This is due to the fact that secularism ultimately promotes religious harmony among the people.

4. Rule of law :
Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to all religious denomination. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly it makes no discrimination between the people on the ground of religion.

5. Tolerance :
Secularism preaches tolerance and kindness. It believes in universal brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God. It professes, propagates and practices the noble principles of charity, kindness, love, magnanimity, non-violence etc. As a result, Secularism is characterized by the peaceful co-existence of people and smooth working of the polity and social institutions in the state.

6. National integration :
Secularism serves as the best means for fostering national unity and integrity feelings among the people. It is also considered as the best device for achieving unity in diversity. It brings unity among the people of various religious beliefs and practices.

7. Protection to the minorities :
Secularism treats all alike. It makes no discrimination between the people of majority and other sections of society. At the same time it extends special facilities to the minority sections for preserving and promoting their interests against the dominance of majority religious group. It teaches the people about the significance of religious tolerance towards minority sections.

8. Alround progress :
The greatest merit of secularism relates to the achievement of alround progress of the people. This is possible due to the prevalence of rule of law, religious tolerance, neutral attitude of the government etc. Especially the government will make all efforts for the development of the people of all religious denominations in all spheres of welfare, social justice, protecting the interests of disadvantages sections etc.

Question 3.
Write an essay on Secularism in Indian context.
Answer:
Indian way of using the word “Secularism” is different from the way it is used in Western countries. The cultural co-existence in India is historically a very important phenomena. It is present in India since longtime. It started from the invasions of Muslims in the early medieval period. The later part Of the enlightment period witnessed the British invasion on India. This introduced Christianity in India. Many Christian Missionaries came to India and set up many educational institutions and Churches. After independence the constitution of India provided for secularism as the basic philosophy underlying the organization and functioning of Indian Republic. Accordingly the Indian constitution declared India as a secular state.

The governments in India including the union, state and local adopted secularism in theory and practice. It should not practice religion in public affairs in the matters of legislation, execution and administration of the state. People of India are allowed complete religious freedom for professing, practicing and propogating their respective religious beliefs.

The Indian State will be neither irreligious nor anti-religious. Instead it adopts a neutral policy in religious matters. It is not entitled to impose taxes or collect them purely on religious grounds. Admission into the staff owned or state funding institutions are completely prohibited on religious grounds. Similarly, propagation or religious programmes in public institutions are banned. Hence secularism carries a lot of importance as per the constitutional provisions.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the origin of Secularism.
Answer:
The ancient Roman emperors denied recognition to the Christian religion. In the medieval period social and religious reformers like Martin Luther and Calvin Zwingle challenged the spiritual monopoly of religious heads. They advocated that religion and spiritual matters are purely personal and private matters. Their speeches marked a break through in religious matters. In modem period, political thinkers like Machiavelli and Jean Bodin emphasized the need for the separation of religion from politics.

John Locke and other liberal thinkers advised the people to follow religious tolerance. In course of time, the writings of the above thinkers influenced the people who began to treat religion as a private and personal affair. In the United States, President Thomas Jafforson explained the real meaning of Secularism by stating that there exists a wall of separation between the State and the Religion.

Question 2.
What is essence of Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism is essentially an advocacy in independent, separate or distinct ideologies separate from religion. It is a view of life based on the principle that morality, education and government should not be related to the religion. It contends that ethical standards of society and norms of governance should be determined exclusively on the basis of the present life and world, not of the divine. Secularism does not aim at repudiation of religion. It merely affirms that church and state are two separate entities. Secularism enables the individuals to enjoy their religious freedom to their full extent. The state will not interfere in the religious affairs of individuals. Secularism preaches tolerance and kindness. It believes in universal brotherhood of man. Secularism serves as the best means for fostering national units and integrity feelings among the people.

Question 3.
Explain any four merits of Secularism.
Answer:
Merits of Secularism :
The following are some of the important merits of secularism.

1. Equality :
Secularism forms as the basis of equalitarian society. It treats the people belonging to all religious denominations as equal. It gives no recognition to the man made inequalities and discriminations based on caste, colour, community, region, religion, language, race etc. People will have a strong favourable impression towards the nation.

3. Law and order :
Now a days one can observe unhappy, miserable and pro-religious movements that are organized by different sections of government, state and other department.

The maintenance of communal harmony became a challenging task for the state in pacifying the feelings the people belonging to various religious denominations. Secularism avoids communal clashes and religious bigotry and animosities in the society. This is due to the fact that secularism ultimately promotes religious harmony among the people.

Question 4.
What is Indian Secularism?
Answer:
It is asserted that India is a secular state. The addition of the word secular to our constitution by 42^nd amendment in 1976 proves this fact. Even from the beginning of the Indian constitution, India is a secular state. Several provisions of the Indian Constitution also prove this fact.

1. According to Article 25, every Indian citizen enjoys the freedom to profess, practice and propagate the religion of his own choice. It also allow them to donate their properties for the religious purposes.

2. Article 26 guarantees every person to :
a) Establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions
b) Manage his (or) her religious affairs
c) Own and acquire movable and immovable properties and
d) Maintain such properties in accordance with law.

3. Article 27 states that state shall not impose any tax upon the individual for the development of religions. It also implies that state shall not impose taxes on the basis of the religious principles of individuals.

4. Article 28 forbids the imparting of religious teachings in the educational institutions which are wholly or partly aided by the government. No religious prayers or discussions shall be conducted in educational institutions.

Question 5.
What are the features of Secular State?
Answer:
Features of Secular State : Secular State comprises the following features.

1. No place for religion :
Secular States does not assign significance to any particular religion. It will not make laws or implement them on religious grounds.

2. Equal status :
Secular State accords equal status to its people. It makes no differentiation between individuals on the grounds of their caste, colour, community, religion, race, region, language etc. As a result, people will have satisfaction and extend co-operation to the govemtnent in the implementation of various policies and programmes. They live together with the fellow members of other religious denominations.

3. No state religion :
Secular state does not recognize any particular religion as the state religion. It adopts neutral policy in religious matters. It implements various laws and social welfare measures without basing on the religious feelings of the people. It will not assign special role to any particular religion in public activities. All public places like educational institutions, government offices and judicial organizations will carry on their activities without aligning to a particular religion.

Question 6.
Describe the Secularism and Secular State.
Answer:
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a modem state. Secular state explains the relation between the state and religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious aurhority over the state affairs. Secularism is an important social and political phenomenon. Many states of the contemporary world have adopted secularism as their policy in public matters. Secularism is essentially an advocacy in independent, separate or distinct ideologies separate from religion.

Secular state is wholly non-religious in the sense that it has no official Religion of its own is totally indifferent to all the religions followed by its citizens in their private life. It grants every individual the freedom to follow any religion or non religion in his personal life. It does not compel him to promote any religion by paying taxes for its propagation or by any other means. The state will not have any religion of its own. i.e., it will promote any religion and at the same time it interfere with none.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Secularism.
Answer:
Meaning :
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of Religion”.

Definitions :
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G.J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Question 2.
What is Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a modern state. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority over the sate affairs. Secularism is an important social and political phenomenon. Secularism is essentially an advocacy in independent, separate or distinct ideologies separate from religion.

Question 3.
What is Theocratic State?
Answer:
The state having an official religion is called a theocratic state. In such state all other religions or religious activities are either prohibited or discouraged by the state all the official and important offices of the state are either appointed or elected only those from the official religion. State officially participates in the religious affairs and rituals.

Question 4.
In what ways does secularism enables religious freedom to individual?
Answer:
Secularism does not recognize any particular religion as the state religion. Secular state adopts neutral policy in religious matters. It implements various laws and social welfare measures without basing on the religious feelings of the people. :

Question 5.
How does rule of law promotes Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to all religious denominations. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly, it makes no discrimination between the people on the grounds of religion in the matters of legislation enforcement and adjudication of laws.

Question 6.
Define Secular State.
Answer:
D.E. Smith defined Secular State as “None while guaranteeing individual and corporate freedom of religion, which deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of his religion”.

Question 7.
Write about any two features of Secular State.
Answer:
Features of Secular State : Secular State comprises the following features.

1. No place for religion :
Secular States does not assign significance to any particular religion. It will not make laws or implement them on religious grounds.

2. Equal status :
Secular state accords equal status to its people. It makes no differentiation between individuals on the grounds of their caste, colour, community, religion, race, region, language etc. As a result, people will have satisfaction and extend co-operation to the government in the implementation of various policies and programmes. They live together with the fellow members of other religious denominations.

Question 8.
What is the meanivig of Secular State?
Answer:
The term ‘Secular’ in Latin language means “of this world”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of religion”. The English word ‘Secular’ comes from the Latin “Saeculum” which means “An age” or “the spirit of an age”. According to E.S. Waterhouse, “Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in religion.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 8 Democracy

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 8th Lesson Democracy Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 8th Lesson Democracy

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Democracy and explain its features.
Answer:
Democracy is an important and most significant form of government. The term “Democracy” is derived from two Greek words namely ’Demos’ and “Kratio”. In greek language Demos means the people and Kratio means power. Hence Democracy means power of the people.

Definitions of Democracy:
Abraham Lincoln :
” Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

J.R. Seeley :
“Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”

Lord Bryce :
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the •state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

Features of Democracy :
1) Liberty :
Democratic government aims at securing maximum liberty for its citizens. It is built on the foundations of Liberty and Equality. Democracy is the only government which assures liberties to the people by incorporating them in the constitution.

2) Equality :
In the words of Prof. Seeley, democracy is “a government in which everyone has a share”. A democracy government gives opportunities to all for making them to take part in political matters. Every citizen has the right to vote and to contest in the election.

3) Independent Judiciary :
Independent Judiciary is important principle of Democracy. The higher courts in democratic states act as watchdog of the people’s freedoms. They issue several writs for preserving and upholding fundamental freedoms. They serve as the custodian of people’s rights.

4) Government of the people :
Democracy is government by the representatives of the people and these are elected by the adults, who are free to vote as they please without being coerced or pressurized by anyone. Democracy is the government by ballot not by bullet.

5) Majority Rule :
Democracy stands for a rule of the majority with adequate safeguards to the minorities. Every state has political parties. One of the political parties comes to power by capturing the majority of seats in the legislature. This means democracy is a system of government based on the principle of majority rule.

6) Follows constitution principles :
A democratic government functions strictly according to the principles of a constitution. Whether written or unwritten, this has been accepted by the people.

7) Against to violence and revolutions :
Democracy provides for a change in government according to constitutional principles and it is against any change by violent or revolutionary means.

8) Against to coercive methods :
Democracy opposed to coercive methods, even if they are for the social good. A government cannot be called democratic, if it uses illegitimate coercion in the name of social welfare.

9) Importance to Human Rights :
Democracy upholds the dignity of the human personality and gives various kinds of rights to the individual. Actually, to providing constitutional rights to the people is the fundamental principle of the democracy. The constitutions of India and U.S.A. had provided several rights to their people.

10) Right to speak :
Democracy allows all individuals the right to speak, criticize and disagree with others constructively.

11) Encouragement to Ideas :
Democracy allows plurality of ideas and ideologies and stands firmly on the principles of tolerance. In the legislature there is plenty of worth full discussions occurred among the public representatives related to public issues.

12) Against Imperialism and war :
Democracy in the international sphere stands for the principle of self determination and for the regulation of interstate relation on the basis of equality, justice and reason. Democracy is against aggressive nationalism, imperialism and war.

Besides the above, Democracy has some more principles like Rule of law, welfare mechanism, Decentralization of powers, Judicial review etc.

Question 2.
What are the two types of Democracy.
Answer:
Democracy is an important and most significant form of government. The term Democracy is derived from two greek words namely Demos and Kratio. In greek language Demos means the people and Kratio means power. Hence Democracy means power of the people.

Definitions of Democracy:
Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

J.R. Seeley :
“Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”

Lord Bryce:
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

Types of Democracy :
Democracy is mainly classified into two types, namely Direct Democracy and indirect Democracy. These two types are explained as below.

1) Direct Democracy :
When the people themselves directly express their will on public affairs, this type of government is called direct democracy. In direct democracy the citizens are the real makers of the state policy and programme of action. The will of the state is directly formulated by them and not through their elected delegates.

Some direct democratic checks such as referendum and initiative are in operation today Switzerland and in a few states of the United States. In some small Cantons of Switzerland adult citizens meet in any Sunday in April or May and by show of hands, elect their representative offices as also approve the measures they needed.

2) Indirect Democracy :
Indirect democracy is also known as representative democracy. In this type of democracy a clear distinction is made between the immediate sovereign and the ultimate sovereign. The legislature which consists of the elected representatives of the people formulates and expresses the will of the state. Hence, the legislature is the immediate sovereign authority.

In this type of democracy the people elect their representatives periodically and review their activities during their full term. If their activities are proved to be unsatisfactory, the people can with draw their trust in them and choose new representatives. Representative democracy thus combines efficient administration with popular sovereignty. In representative democracy the parties articulate and organize the will of the people and act as the transmission belt between the government and the governed. In a representative democracy the ultimate source of authority remains the people.

Question 3.
What is Democracy? Explain its merits and Demerits?
Answer:
Democracy is an important and most significant form of government. The term “Democracy” is derived from two greek words namely ‘Demos’ and “Kratio”. In greek language Demos means the people and Kratio means power. Hence Democracy means power of the people.

Definitions of Democracy:
Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

J.R. Seeley :
“Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”

Merits of Democracy :
In modem world almost every state has choose the Democracy because of its merits. So, here we mentioned the merits of the Democracy.

1) Efficient form of Government :
In democracy, the representatives of the people will run the administration on efficient lines. As they are responsible and responsive to the people, they always make laws and implement them by consulting various administrative experts and eminent leaders. They also try to minimize the expenditure of the government by following simplicity and economy in administration. The administrative and executive personnel will be recruited on the basis of merit, efficiency, experience and their service will be utilized in implementing various public welfare programmes.

2) Upholds Individual Liberties :
It is only in democracy that the liberties of individuals can be guaranteed to a great extent. Citizens living in democracy enjoy a great amount of liberty. Their rights, liberties and freedoms are incorporated in and guaranteed by a written constitution. Any attempt made to take away or confiscate one’s liberties are forbidden. The various courts preserve, protect and promote individual liberties through their interpretation and analysis of different provisions of the constitution.

3) Importance to Equality :
Democracy gives preference to equality. Democracy provides equal rights and liberties to all citizens alike in political, economic and social matters. It opposes the practice of untouchability, bonded labour and discrimination on the grounds of religion, region, language, birth etc.

4) Political awareness :
Democracy is a large scale experiment in Public education or political awareness. Election campaigns give education to the masses. At the time of election, the canvassing through press and platform enlightens the mind of the electorate.

5) Promotes Patriotism :
Democracy promotes patriotic feelings among the people. People get several opportunities in selecting and electing their representatives to various bodies. They feel conscious and proud in participating in the working of the democratic institutions in a perfect manner. They show enthusiasm by extending their co-operation and support to the nation at the times of crisis. This is evident in the case of Indians during the Chinese and Pakistani invasions at the borders on several occasions.

6) Democracy serves as a school of citizenship :
One more advantage of democracy is that it serves as a training school of citizenship. In democracy right to vote, right to contest, right to criticize the government and other political rights make the citizens politically trained in citizenship and other matters.

7) Democracy inculcates moral values :
Democracy promotes a better and higher standard of natural character than any other government whatever. It teaches co-operation, responsibility, toleration and self-sacrifice. According to Lowell “the best government in the long run is the one that nurtures a people strong in moral fiber, in integrity, industry, self-reliance and courage”.

8) Democracy gives Preference to public opinion :
In fact, Democracy is the real representative of the Public opinion. According to Hearen Shaw, ‘Democracy ties a nerve to every individual; it makes a connection between him and the centre”.

9) It reduce the danger of revolution :
Democracy is a government by discussion and persuasion. Every other form of government rests on force. Democracy gives every individual and every group of people a chance to express their views on public matters, to demonstrate their dissatisfaction and resentment against governmental measures and to convert the masses to their own point of view. They have a right to change the government by their vote. So, there is no chance to people opt revolutionary methods.

10) Symbol of progress and welfare programmes :
Democracy is the only form of government which ensures always the progress and welfare of the people.

11) Support World Peace :
Democracy promotes world peace and opposed to war and violence. It seeks the change through evolutionary process with the purview of constitution. Democracy believes in peaceful co-existence and co-operation. According to Bums, “Democratic movements have always been movements for peace”.

Demerits of Democracy:
1) Expensive Government :
Democracy is the most expensive type of government. A lot of money is spent on election propaganda. Millions of money is spent on the sessions of the national and provincial legislatures. Carlyle said the parliament as a Talking shop’. Italian dictator Mussolini could, therefore, correctly say that democracy is not suited to a poor country.

2) Weak and instable Government :
Democracy is a weak and instable type of government. In those countries where there are multiple party systems, the coalitions fall frequently and bring instability in the government. For ex; In India 1977 to 79; 1989 to 1991; 1996 to 1999 coalition governments failed to rule the government with stable.

3) Government by the minority :
In practical Democracy does not represent majority opinion. Actually Democracy is said to be government by the majority. This claim on behalf of democracy is not sustainable. In every state a large number of people never exercise their vote. Besides, in most democratic states the first-past-the-post electoral system prevails (majority vote system). Under this system it often happens that the party securing a minority vote is returned to power. The number of votes secured by the party in power is less than those obtained by the opposition. Democracy thus ceases to be government by the majority.

4) Discouragement to culture, civilization and intellectual development :
Democracy is the government by masses and always have conservative outlook. They show no interest in the development of literature, art and architecture. In Democracy intellectuals always keeps distance from elections. So many examples are in history defeat of intellectuals in direct elections.

5) Slow decision making :
Democracy is slow decision making government. Because it takes lot of time to take decision. It delays the work. Legislature process, party system, opposition parties, coalition politics plays key role in decision making in Democratic governments.

Question 4.
Discuss the essential conditions for the success of Democracy.
Answer:
The following conditions are essential for the success of democracy.
1) Sound system of Education :
The success of democracy requires adequate education for the citizens. Ignorance, innocence and under education prevent them from adopting right attitudes and large-scale reforms. Education sharpens the intellect of individuals. It develops a proper understanding of various things. It makes the citizens vigilant. Besides, this enables them to assess and criticise the policies of government.

2) Enlightened Citizenship :
Enlightened citizens are an asset to the democratic state. They can excise proper vigilance. They can actively participate in public affairs and help their fellow citizens in the exercise of their rights and discharge of their reproducibilities. They extend co-operation to the government in all its good work.

3) Independent Press :
An independent press is a prerequisite of democracy. It enables the people to receive accurate and unbiased information regarding the activities of the government. It not only keeps the people in touch with government activities but also ventilates their grievances. It strives to promote harmonious relationship between the people and the government.

5) Decentralization of powers :
Decentralization of powers and establishment of democratic institutions at the grass roots level is indispensable for the healthy organisation of democratic institutions. The representative bodies at the grass roots level (as known as Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India) will act as the mini legislatures. The residents of local areas will be able to know how to exercise their franchise.

6) Absence of economic disparities :
Democracy can not function smoothly when there are economic disparities in a country. When a country comprises a large number of poor people and a few wealthy persons, democracy could not work successfully.

7) Social Equality :
Social equality is another prerequisite of democracy. Caste, class and racial differences will impede the healthy working of democracy. Such elements encourage of democratic polity. To be successful, democracy must open its doors to everybody on equal basis by providing equal social opportunities to all in social sphere. Social equality must not only be proclaimed but also be practiced.

8) Faith in democracy :
Certain democratic beliefs and values like individual’s worth, need for tolerance of differences, decisions through discussions etc., should be inculcated among the people.

9) Sagacious Leadership :
Sagacious leadership is another essential condition of democracy. Sagacious leaders, by dint’ of their administrative acumen, political propriety, social commitment and economic perspective, will be able to lead the democratic state to greater heights of glory.

10) Honesty and transparency :
Honest persons belonging to various walks life, when entrusted with major responsibilities of the government, will strive for the success of democracy. Similarly transparency in administration also acts as a basic ingredient for the success of democracy.

11) Absence of militarism :
Democracy functions mostly in countries which are relatively free from militarism. In rules out the use of force and believes in the worth of individuals. It provides adequate opportunities to the people basing on worth, ability and dedication militarism, on the other hand, demands concentration of authority and favours despotism.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Democracy and mention its merits?
Answer:
Definitions :
1) Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2) Lord Bryce :
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

3) J.R. Seeley :
“Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share”.

Merits :
Democracy has the following merits.

a) Efficient government :
Prof. Garner described democracy as an efficient and effective government. The government in democracy carries all its activities efficiently and effectively both in normal times and emergencies.

b) Upholds individual liberties :
Democracy is the only government that upholds individual liberties. It guarantees certain civil rights to the people thereby providing an opportunity for them to become ideal and responsible citizens.

c) Assures equality :
Democracy assures equality of individuals in political and economic spheres. The people living in democratic nation enjoy all the political, civil and economic rights and privileges equally without any discrimination.

d) Educates the masses :
Democracy is described as a laboratory for a large scale experiments in public education. The masses in democracy are educated and enlightened through public meetings, election campaigns, distribution of pamphlets, etc.

e) Promotes patriotism :
The people in a democracy think that the country is their own property. When the country is in difficulties, they come forward to protect the interests of the nation. Therefore democracy develops patriotic spirit in the people.

f) Develops sense of responsibility :
J.S. Mill says that “democracy promotes a better and higher form of national character than any other policy whatever”. Since it is a rule by themselves, the people behave with a great sense of responsibility.

g) Training school for citizenship :
De Tocqueville, a French writer said that democracy serves as a training school for citizenship. Democracy promotes intellectual and moral qualities among the people.

h) A rational government :
Democracy is based on the principle that no man is infallible. It adopts a process of discussion and criticism which serves as necessary correctives to the abuse of power. Besides, they safeguard the rational nature of the political system.

Question 2.
What is Democracy and mention its de-merits?
Answer:
Demerits :
Democracy has the following demerits.

1) Expensive Government :
Democracy is the most expensive type of government. A lot of money is spent on election propaganda. Millions of money is spent on the sessions of the national and provincial legislatures. Carlyle said the parliament as a ‘Talking shop’. Italian dictator Mussolini could, therefore, correctly say that democracy is not suited to a poor country.

Question 3.
What is direct democracy and mention its devices?
Answer:
Devices Direct Democracy: There are four devices prescribed in direct democracies to enable the people to participate directly in the administrative activities of the State. Those are 1. Referendum 2. Initiative 3. Recall and 4. Plebiscite

These methods may be explained as follows.
1) Referendum :
It is one of the direct democratic devices. Literally it means, “must be referred to the people”. It is a device where by the electorate may veto a proposed legislation or a bill which the legislature has already passed. In other words, bills passed by the legislature are the voters for their approval or disapproval. If majority of the voters approve them, they become acts. But if they vote against them, they will be given up. Hence, referendum is known as “Popular Veto”. It is of two types – 1) Compulsory referendum : All the constitutional bills must be sent to the people. 2) Optional Referendum : An ordinary bill passed by the legislative may be or may not be sent to the people. However, even that ordinary bill must be sent to the people, if a definite number of people demand it. Ex: In Switzerland 30,000 people or eight cantons (States) can demand referendum on an ordinary bill.

2) Initiative :
It is another device of direct democracy. It is a method by means of which the people propose legislation i.e.; they can ask the legislature to pass a particular law. For instance, in Switzerland, if 50,000 voters request the legislature to pass a law, then the proposal is submitted to the consideration of the people. If majority of the people (30,000) approve it, then it becomes an act. Unlike referendum, initiative provides a chance to the people to start the making of law. It is of two types : (1) Formulative Initiative : People present a bill to the legislature (2) Unformulative Initiative : People present a demand to the legislature as king it to pass a bill.

3) Re Call :
It is another device of Direct Democracy. It means “Calling Back”. According to this method a specific number of voters may call back or dismiss an elected officer or a member of the legislature before the expiry of his term, if he is irresponsible. By means of this, the people can remove a representative or an officer from office when he fails to discharge his duties properly.

4) Plebiscite :
The term ‘Plebiscite” is derived from a French word “Plebiscitum”, which means “decree of the people”. It is used to obtain the opinion of the people on an important political issue or when there is a dispute regarding some territory. The question of accession or secession or territory is generally solved by means of plebiscite. It is not concerned with legislation. It is not apart of legal process. It is only a democratic method of ascertaining the opinion of the people on any political issue of public importance.

Question 4.
What is the role of public opinion in Democracy?
Answer:
The term public opinion was coined by philosopher John Locke in the 17^th century. In the middle ages, the saying Vox populi; Vox Dei which, means voice of the people is the voice of God gained prominence.

Definitions of Public Opinion :
1) Lord Bryce :
“Public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate of the views men hold regarding the community”.

2) R.G.Gettel :
“Public opinion is the opinion formed by a small group of leaders, which will be accepted by individuals as they have neither the knowledge nor the time nor the interest to enable them to form opinions of their own”.

Role of Public Opinion in Democracy :
The term ‘public opinion’ was coined by philosopher John Locke in the 17^th century. However, the concept itself predates Locke. Vox Populi or voice of the people’ is a similar Latin concept. Today, public opinion is defined in the following way : collective evaluations expressed by people on political issues, policies, institutions and individuals.

Public opinion changes policy through passive observations that accumulate amongst citizens. Public opinion is important in a democracy because the people are the ultimate source of political power.

In theory, a government official has to take public opinion into account whilst deciding on a future course of action. Political parties must maintain a certain level of positive public opinion which is subject to a certain measure of manipulation through mass media and other sources and used to maintain the status quo. That is, however, not to say that public opinion, itself should be considered a ‘positive social function’.

It is important to understand the factors that shape public opinion as a whole. These include social class, education, region, age, gender and ethnic group. Society is not a homogeneous whole. It is made up of components. Each component faces different challenges in its functioning, therefore, members of each component view the world differently.

A state is built upon the consent of the members of society. A constitution is drafted by the collective will of the people. Just as the state and the constitution are vital organic constructs, so is the primary method of informing them: public opinion. Many governments, in one way or the other, try to influence the public by promoting its policies or actions through the mass media.

Question 5.
Explain any four essential conditions for the success of Democracy.
Answer:
1) Sound system of Education :
The success of democracy requires adequate education for the citizens. Ignorance, innocence and under education prevent them from adopting right attitudes and large-scale reforms. Education sharpens the intellect of individuals. It develops a proper understanding of various things. It makes the citizens vigilant. Besides, this enables them to assess and criticise the policies of government.

2) Enlightened Citizenship :
Enlightened citizens are an asset to the democratic state. They can excise proper vigilance. They can actively participate in public affairs and help their fellow citizens in the exercise of their rights and discharge of their reponsibilities. They extend co-operation to the government in all its good work.

3) Independent Press :
An independent press is a prerequisite of democracy. It enables the people to receive accurate and unbiased information regarding the activities of the government: It not only keeps the people in touch with government activities but also ventilates their grievances. It strives to promote harmonious relationship between the people and the government.

4) Strong Opposition :
The success of parliamentary democracy depends to a great extent on the strong and effective opposition. Such an opposition will act as a check against the government by pointing out its lapses. In this regard, the role of opposition in some advanced states like Australia, Britan and United States is liable. In India to the opposition parties performed great role in many times.

7) Social Equality :
Social equality is another pre-requisite of democracy. Caste, class and racial differences will impede the healthy working of democracy. Such elements encourage of democratic polity. To be successful, democracy must open its doors to everybody on equal basis by providing equal social opportunities to all in social sphere. Social equality must not only be proclaimed but also be practiced.

8) Faith in democracy :
Certain democratic beliefs and values like individual’s worth, need for tolerance of differences, decisions through discussions etc., should be inculcated among the people.

10) Honesty and transparency :
Honest persons belonging to various walks life, when entrusted with major responsibilities of the government, will strive for the success of democracy. Similarly transparency in administration also acts- as a basic ingredient for the success of democracy.

11) Absence of militarism :
Democracy functions mostly in countries which are relatively free from militarism. In rules out the use of force and ” wes in the worth of individuals. It provides adequate opportunities to the people basing on worth, ablility and dedication militarism, on the other hand, demands concentration f authority and favours despotism.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Democracy.
Answer:
Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

J.R. Seeley :
“Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”

Lord Bryce :
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

Question 2.
What is indirect Democracy?
Answer:
Indirect Democracy :
Indirect democracy is also known as representative democracy. In this type of democracy a clear distinction is made between the immediate sovereign and the ultimate sovereign. The legislature which consists of the elected representatives of the people formulates and expresses the will of the state. Hence, the legislature is the immediate sovereign authority.

Question 3.
What is direct Democracy?
Answer:
Direct democracy is a system of government in which people directly participate in the activities of the State and the Government. The people directly express their views on the government policies. Direct democratic methods are four. They are Referendum, Plebiscite, Initiative and Recall.

Question 4.
What is recall?
Answer:
Recall means To call back. The representatives will be called back by the people in case they are inefficient. Hence, this method helps the representatives in discharging their responsibilities properly for fear of being called back on the grounds of inefficiency.

Question 5.
What is plebiscite?
Answer:
Plebiscite means ascertaining public opinion on certain important issues. This is not applicable to the laws and the Constitution. People’s verdict is sought on certain public problems and policies of the government. This method was first used in 1804 by Napoleon in France.

Question 6.
What are Referendum?
Answer:
Referendum means ‘Refer to’. This method is used to ascertain the public opinion on important legislation. In some regions, the public opinion is sought on the problems of constitutional law and ordinary law. This is called referendum. Referendum is of two types. They are i) Compulsory referendum ii) Optional referendum.

Question 7.
What is initiative?
Answer:
Initiative is a request made by the people to the legislature in framing a law on certain national problem or policy as such. After making the law, the same shall be presented for referendum. In this aspect, people in a specified number present a petition in written form to the legislature proposing a legislation. It is also of two kinds. They are i) Formulative initiative ii) Non-formulative initiative.

Question 8.
What is public opinion?
Answer:
Public opinion occupies an important place in democratic states. People express their opinion in times of elections or through the legislatures. They obey and follow those laws which are formulated in accordance with the public opinion. If the government acts against the wishes of people it has to face the consequences. Public opinion keeps the government responsible and responsive. It keeps the government alert and vigilant in its functioning.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material Chapter 7 Citizenship

June 25, 2026June 24, 2026 by Srinivas

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 7th Lesson Citizenship Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Political Science Study Material 7th Lesson Citizenship

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define citizenship. Describe the methods of acquiring citizenship.
Answer:
Introduction :
Citizenship is a privilege of individual residing in democratic states. People fed that citizenship enables them to lead a happy, honourable and harmonious life in the state. Citizenship instills the feelings of patriotism, sacrifice, broad outlook etc., among the people.

Definitions :
Prof. Laski :
“Citizenship is one’s contribution of instructed judgement to the public good”.

T.H. Marshall :
“Citizenship is a status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess this status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the state is endowed”.

Methods of acquiring citizenship :
There are two methods of acquiring citizenship. They are : i) Natural ii) Naturalization. The two methods may be studied as follows.

i) Natural Citizenship :
Natural Citizenship is one which is acquired by the persons without specific application or request to the authorities. It comprises three elements. They are :

Blood relationship (Jus Sanguinis)
Soil (Jus Soli) and
Mixed principle.

i) Jus Sanguinis – (Kinship or Blood Relationship) :
This type of Citizenship denotes acquiring citizenship by kinship or blood relationship. Under this method birth within the territory of a state entitles a person to have citizenship. Every person is treated as a citizen of the state where he is born. According to Ju? Sanguinis, a child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth. Here blood relationship alone determines the Citizenship. Ex : A child born to the Indian parents will be treated as Indian citizen irrespective of its place of birth.

ii) Jus Soli (Land or Place of Birth) :
Jus Soli means acquisition of citizenship by the principle of place of birth. According to this method, citizenship is determined by the place of birth and not by parentage. It is the place of birth which determines citizenship. However this method is not more popular in modem times. It was popular in the Middle Ages when citizenship was associated with land. At present, however, this practice is observed exclusively in Argentina.

Mixed Principle :
Under this method citizenship is granted by following either of the two principles of Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli. Many states adopted both these principles. Ex: In Britain, France and United States, the above two principles are employed simultaneously. In this context there may arise duplication of citizenship. Ex: A child bom to British parents in’ the United States becomes an american citizen according to the practice of Jus Soli. The same child becomes a citizen of Britain according to the principle of Jus Sanguinis. In such a case, the child is given option to choose one of its citizenship, after becoming a major.

ii) Naturalised Citizenship :
Citizenship may also be acquired through naturalization. According to this method, an alien will become a citizen after fulfilling certain conditions. These conditions vary from state to state. Some of them may be summed up as follows.
1) Residence :
An alien who resides in a state for a prescribed period automatically become its citizen. Residence in any part of the state is a must for an alien. The period of residence varies from state to state. For instance it is 5 years in Britain and United States and 10 years in France respectively.

2) Choice :
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

3) Application :
An alien in a state may apply for the citizenship of that state. Then the government of that state considers his application on its merits. It grants citizenship to him with or without some conditions. These prescribed conditions refer to a minimum period of residence, good moral character, financial capability aqd knowledge of one of the national languages. Besides, an alien must take an oath of allegiance before he assumes the citizenship of another state.

4) Fixed Assets :
An alien who buys some portion of land or acquires some fixed property can acquire citizenship in a state.

5) Service (Public or Private) :
An alien who serves in the government of a state or in a private recognised enterprise could become the citizen of that state. He is entitled for such citizenship if he serves in the public or private authorised departments. He may also be given Citizenship if the renders meritorious service in another state.

6) Marriage :
An alien woman acquires citizenship of a state when she marries the citizen of that state. In some countries when a person marries an alien, Citizenship of either of the husband or wife is acquired. For instance, a British lady will acquire Indian citizenship if she marries an Indian citizen. Japanese women do not lose their citizenship even if they marry persons of alien states. The alien person on the other hand, acquires the citizenship of Japan if he marries a Japanese lady.

In this context it may be noted that an alien who receives the citizenship of the new state, he will have to forego his native citizenship. In other words no one is allowed to have dual citizenships simultaneously.

Question 2.
Explain the various qualities of a good Citizens.
Answer:
According to Aristotle good citizens make good state. This is due to the fact that good citizens imbibe many noble qualities. Lord Bryce cited three qualities of a good citizen, namely, conscience, intelligence and self control. On the whole, a good citizen will have the following qualities.

1) Good Character :
Good character is essential for a good citizen. A good citizen should be courageous, just, helpful, kind-hearted, sympathetic, truthful and virtuous in letter and spirit.

2) Sound health :
A good citizen should have good health and strength. Healthy citizens make the nation healthy. Only a sound body will have a sound mind. Sound body and mind of a citizen paves the way for the progress of the state in many spheres.

3) Intelligence and education :
Proper education is another quality of a citizen. The citizen should be well-enlightened, fully aware and informed of his rights and responsibilities. He must be intelligent enough to identify good and bad. He will not be emotional in examining the events. In this regard education enables him to play a proper role in the society. An intelligent citizen will be able to understand the problems of the state in a proper way.

4) Self control :
A good citizen will have moderate temperment. He will have self¬control in his public activities. Self control and confidence make him to lead a disciplined life. He will not indulge in inhuman activities.

5) Public spirit :
A good citizen should have broad and liberal outlook. He should be ready to take active part in public affairs. He should be intelligent in enjoying his rights and responsibilities. He should have active participation in the social activities. He should have public-spirit and ready to offer his services for the collective welfare of the society.

6) Self-sacrifice :
A good citizen must possess self sacrifice. He must subordinate his self-interest to the interests of the community. He must be imbibed by the spirit of service and devotion to the society, government and state.

7) Honest exercise of franchise :
Honest exercise of one’s franchise is another essential quality of a good citizen. Self interest or sectional interest in terms of class, religion or community act as a hurdle to good citizenship.

8) Sincere performance of obligations :
A good citizen performs his obligations sincerely and faithfully. He extends co-operation to the authorities in the discharge of their obligations. He pays his taxes to the various governmental organizations promptly and properly.

9) Right ordering of loyalties :
A good citizen brings about a right ordering of his loyalties to the family, class, caste, club, trade union, region and nation. He avoids conflicts between various associations by assigning priorities. He sacrifices his self interest for the sake of wider purposes. When there arises a conflict between the interests of the family and the locality, one must sacrifice the interests of the family for the sake of the locality.

Question 3.
How many types of citizenship are there? Elucidate.
Answer:
There are three types of Citizenship. They are : (i) Single Citizenship (ii) Dual Citizenship and (iii) Global or Universal Citizenship.

i) Single Citizenship :
Single Citizenship implies possession of one type of citizenship, identical rights, privileges and immunities by the citizens. Citizens enjoy this type of citizenship without any discrimination. It is prevalent in many states in the modem period. For instance the constitution of India provided for single citizenship to every Indian citizen irrespective of his place of birth, residence etc.

ii) Dual Citizenship :
Dual citizenship means possession of two citizenships in two States. It is in vogue in some developed and developing countries. For instance, children bom to American citizens in other states acquire natural citizenship in both the states – one in their parent American State and another in the State where they are bom. However, persons having dual citizenship are not entitled to the special privileges. They are subject to the laws of both countries. Dual citizenship applies to the children until they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of one of the two States.

iii) Global or Universal Citizenship :
Global or Universal Citizenship is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national politics. The dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created a great awareness among the people all over the world. The advancement in communications, science, technology and other spheres transformed human life in a miraculous way.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
How is naturalised citizenship acquired?
Answer:
Naturalised Citizenship :
Citizenship may also be acquired through naturalization. According to this method, an alien will become a citizen after fulfilling certain conditions. These conditions vary from state to state. Some of them may be summed up as follows.

1) Residence :
An alien who resides in a state for a prescribed period automatically become its citizen. Residence in any part of the state is a must for an alien. The period of residence varies from state to state. For instance it is 5 years in Britain and United States and 10 years in France respectively.

2) Choice :
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

3) Application :
An alien in a state may apply for the citizenship of that state. Then the government of that state considers his application on its merits. It grants citizenship to him with or without some conditions. These prescribed conditions refer to a minimum period of residence, good moral character, financial capability and knowledge of one of the national languages. Besides, an alien must take an oath of allegiance before he assumes the citizenship of another state.

4) Fixed Assets :
An alien who buys some portion of land or acquires some fixed property can acquire citizenship in a state.

6) Marriage :
An alien woman acquires citizenship of a state when she marries the citizen of that state. In some countries when a person marries an alien, citizenship of either of the husband or wife is acquired. For instance, a British lady will acquire Indian citizenship if she marries an Indian citizen. Japanese women do not lose their citizenship even if they marry persons of alien states. The alien person on the other hand, acquires the citizenship of Japan if he marries a Japanese lady.

Question 2.
How citizenship is lost? [Mar. ’17]
Answer:
Citizens loose their citizenship under the following conditions :
1) Renunciation :
A person is deprived of his citizenship, if he wishes to become the citizen of another state. One will lose the citizenship of one’s parent state and may become the citizen of a foreign state by naturalization. In India, the Constitution prescribes that a person who voluntarily acquires citizenship of any other state will no longer be an Indian citizen.

2) Marriage :
Generally a woman lose her citizenship when she marries an alien. However some states allow retention of citizenship. For instance in Britain, there is an option to retain British citizenship who marries an alien.

3) Accepting Foreign Service :
A person may lose his citizenship when he enters into the service of another state. If a person accepts a permanent job in the government of a foreign state, he foregoes the citizenship of his native state.

4) Obliging Foreign Decorations or Titles :
When a citizen obliges to receive foreign decorations or titles, it may lead to the forfeiture of his Citizenship.

5) Prolonged Absence :
Prolonged absence in the native state beyond a certain period may lead to the loss of citizenship. In some states like France and Germany citizens who are absent themselves from their native country for more than ten years will loose their citizenship.

6) Treason or Crime :
Involvement of a citizen in a serious crime and subsequent proof of his action will also lead to the loss of citizenship. Especially those persons who directly or indirectly participate or extend assistance to anti-state, anti-social and anti-govemmental activities, will loose their citizenship by a special notification to that effect.

7) Desertion from Army :
Desertion from army thereby jeopardizing the security of a state leads to the forfeiture of citizenship.

Question 3.
Explain any three conditions for securing naturalized citizenship.
Answer:
1) Residence :
An alien who resides in a state for a prescribed period automatically become its citizen. Residence in any part of the state is a must for an alien. The period of residence varies from state to state. For instance it is 5 years in Britain and United States and 10 years in France respectively.

2) Choice :
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

3) Application :
An alien in a state may apply for the citizenship of that state. Then the government of that state considers his application on its merits. It grants citizenship to him with or without some conditions. These prescribed conditions refer to a minimum period of residence, good moral character, financial capability and knowledge of one of the national languages. Besides, an alien must take an oath of allegiance before he assumes the citizenship of another state.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define citizenship.
Answer:

Prof. Laski defines “Citizenship is one’s contribution of instructed judgement to the public good”.
T.H.Marshall defines “Citizenship is a status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess this status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the state is endowed”.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Jus Sanguinis?
Answer:
Acquiring citizenship by kinship or blood relation is called Jus Sanguinis. According to Jus Sanguinis, a child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth. Blood relation alone determines the citizenship in Jus Sanguinis method.

Question 3.
What does the terms Jus Soli mean?
Answer:
Jus Soli means acquisition of .citizenship by the principle of place of birth. According to this method, a child acquires the citizenship of a State, where it borns. It is the place of birth which determines citizenship. This method is not more popular in modem times. At present, this method is observed exclusively in Argentina.

Question 4.
List out two conditions of loss of citizenship.
Answer:
i) Renunciation :
A person is deprived of his citizenship, if he wishes to become the citizen of any other State.

ii) Marriage :
Generally a woman lose her citizenship when she marries an alien.

Question 5.
What is dual citizenship. [Mar.’17]
Answer:
Dual Citizenship means possession of two citizenships in two States. Ex : Children born to American citizens in other States acquire citizenship in both the States – one in their parent State and the other in the State, where there are born. Dual citizenship applies to the children until they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of any one of the two states.

Question 6.
Mention any two qualities of a good Citizen. [Mar. ’17]
Answer:
i) Good Character :
Good character is essential for a good citizen. A good citizen should be courageous, just, helpful, kind-hearted, sympathetic, truthful, and virtuous in letter and spirit.

ii) Sound Health :
A good citizen should have good health and strength. Healthy citizens make the nation healthy and wealthy.

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Study Material Telangana | TS Intermediate 1st Year Botany Textbook Solutions Pdf

August 29, 2024August 28, 2024 by Mahesh

Here you will find Telangana TSBIE State Board Syllabus TS Inter 1st Year Botany Study Material Pdf free download, TS Intermediate 1st Year Botany Textbook Solutions Questions and Answers in English Medium and Telugu Medium according to the latest exam curriculum. The chapter-wise TS Inter 1st Year Study Material will help the students in understanding the concept behind each question in a detailed way.

Students can check the TS Inter 1st Year Botany Syllabus & TS Inter 1st Year Botany Important Questions for strong academic preparation. Students can use TS Inter 1st Year Botany Notes as a quick revision before the exam.

TS Intermediate 1st Year Botany Study Material Pdf Download | TS Inter 1st Year Botany Textbook Solutions Telangana

Unit I Diversity in the Living World

Unit II Structural Organisation in Plants – Morphology

Chapter 5 Morphology of Flowering Plants

Unit III Reproduction in Plants

Unit IV Plant Systematics

Chapter 8 Taxonomy of Angiosperms

Unit V Cell Structure and Function

Unit VI Internal Organisation of Plants

Chapter 12 Histology and Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Unit VII Plant Ecology

Chapter 13 Ecological Adaptation, Succession and Ecological Services

TS Inter 2nd Year Botany Weightage Blue Print 2022-2023

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Weightage Blue Print

TS Inter 1st Year Botany Syllabus

Telangana TS Intermediate 1st Year Botany Syllabus

TELANGANA STATE BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, HYDERABAD
BOTANY – I
SYLLABUS (w.e.f. 2012-13)

Unit-I DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD (30 Periods)

CHAPTER-1 The living world
What is living? – Diversity in the living world; Taxonomic categories and Taxonomic aids

CHAPTER-2 Biological Classification
Five kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia, Three domains of life (six kingdom classification), Viruses, Viroids, Prions & Lichens

CHAPTER-3 Science of plants – Botany
Origin, Development, and Branches of Botany, Scope of Botany and Branches of Botany

CHAPTER-4 Plant Kingdom
Salient features, classification and alteration of generations of the plants of the following groups – Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

UNIT – II STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS-MORPHOLOGY (20 Periods)

CHAPTER-5 Morphology of flowering plants
Vegetative: Parts of a typical Angiospermic plant; Vegetative morphology and modifications- Root, Stem and Leaf- types; Venation, Phyllotaxy.
Reproductive: Inflorescence – Racemose, Cymose and special types (in brief). Flower: Parts of a flower and their detailed description; Aestivation, Placentation. Fruits: Types- True, False and parthenocarpic fruits.

UNIT-III: REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS (25 Periods)

CHAPTER-6 Modes of Reproduction
Asexual reproduction, binary fission, Sporulation, budding, fragmentation, vegetative propagation in plants, Sexual reproduction in brief, Overview of angiosperm life cycle.

CHAPTER-7 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Stamen, microsporangium, pollen grain. Pistil, megasporangium (ovule) and embryo sac; Development of male and female gametophytes. Pollination – Types, agents, Out breeding devices and Pollen – Pistil interaction. Double Fertilization; Post fertilisation events: Development of endosperm and embryo; development of seed, Structure of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous seeds, Significance of fruit and seed. Special modes – Apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony.

UNIT-IV: PLANT SYSTEMATICS (10 Periods)

CHAPTER-8 Taxonomy of angiosperms
Introduction. Types of Systems of classification (In brief). Semi-Technical description of a typical flowering plant Description of Families: Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae.

UNIT-V: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS (35 Periods)

CHAPTER-9 CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE
Cell- Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life- overview of the cell. Prokaryotic cells, Ultra Structure of Plant cell (structure in detail and functions in brief), Cell membrane, Cell wall, Cell organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Plastids, Ribosomes, Golgi bodies, Vacuoles, Lysosomes, Microbodies, Centrosome and Centriole, Cilia, Flagella, Cytoskeleton and Nucleus. Chromosomes: Number, structural organization; Nucleosome.

CHAPTER-10 Biomolecules
Structure and function of Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic acids.

CHAPTER-11 Cell cycle and cell division
Cell cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis – significance.

UNIT-VI: INTERNAL ORGANISATION OF PLANTS (25 Periods)

CHAPTER-12 HISTOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
Tissues – Types, structure and functions: Meristematic; Permanent tissues – Simple and Complex tissues. Tissue systems – Types, structure and function: Epidermal, Ground and Vascular tissue systems. Anatomy of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous plants – Root, Stem and Leaf. Secondary growth in Dicot stem and Dicot root.

UNIT-VII: PLANT ECOLOGY (12 Periods)

CHAPTER-13 ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION, SUCCESSION AND ECOLOGICAL SERVICES
Introduction. Plant communities and Ecological adaptations: Hydrophytes, Mesophytes and Xerophytes. Plant succession. Ecological services – Carbon fixation, Oxygen release and pollination (in brief).

We hope this TS Intermediate 1st Year Botany Study Material Pdf Download in English Medium and Telugu Medium will be useful for students to attain the right approach for precisely answering the textbook questions. If there is any trouble in grasping the concepts related to TS Inter 1st Year Botany Textbook Solutions Telangana, drop your questions in the comment and we will get back to you with a solution in time.

TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Study Material Telangana | TS Intermediate 1st Year Environmental Education Textbook Solutions Pdf

August 29, 2024August 28, 2024 by Mahesh

Here you will find Telangana TSBIE State Board Syllabus TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Study Material Pdf free download, TS Intermediate 1st Year Environmental Education Textbook Solutions Questions and Answers in English Medium and Telugu Medium according to the latest exam curriculum. The chapter-wise TS Inter 1st Year Study Material will help the students in understanding the concept behind each question in a detailed way.

Students can check the TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Syllabus & TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Important Questions for strong academic preparation. Students can use TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Notes as a quick revision before the exam.

TS Intermediate 1st Year Environmental Education Study Material Pdf Download | TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Textbook Solutions Telangana

Unit I Man and Environment

Unit II Environment and Development

Unit III Environmental Pollution and Global Issues

Unit IV Energy

Unit V Bio-Diversity

Unit VI Environmental Management

Unit VII Sustainable Development

Unit VIII Sustainable Agriculture

TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Syllabus

Telangana TS Intermediate 1st Year Environmental Education Syllabus

Chapter 1 Dimensions of the Environment
Meaning of the term “Environment”, Relationship between Man and Environment, Impacts of Man on the Environment, Dimensions of the Environment, Legacy for future generations, Water cycle, Bio-geo-chemical Cycle, and Oxygen cycle.

Chapter 2 Environmental Stakeholders
Meaning of Environment stakeholders, Categories of stakeholders, ‘3Rs’ Approach, Benefits of the stakeholder consultation process, 4 case studies on the issue of stakeholder participation.

Chapter 3 Population Explosion and its Consequences
Meaning of the term population and population explosion, Causes of population explosion, Consequences of population explosion, and Population control measures.

Chapter 4 Factors Affecting Development
Understanding the term “Environment” and “Development”, Factors that affect Development – Physical, Social, Economic, Social evils – causes, effects, and solutions.

Chapter 5 Ill Effects of Industrial Development
Pollution in terms of Industrial Development (Types), Reasons why pollution control measures are difficult to implement, Impacts of Industrial development and human activities on the environment, and Need for sustainable development.

Chapter 6 Development in Telangana
Development in Telangana State – Agricultural Sector, Industrial Sector, Services Sector
Telangana Industries – IT Sector, Mining, Pharma Industry

Chapter 7 Types, Sources and effects of Pollution
Understanding the term Environmental Pollution, Sources, effects and control measures of air pollution, Sources, effects and control measures of noise pollution, Sources, effects and control measures of water pollution, Definition, causes, effects and control of soil pollution, Definition, sources, effects, control of thermal, nuclear and plastic pollution, Solid Waste definition, types, effects and handling of wastes.

Chapter 8 Natural and Man-made Disaster
Understanding the term “Disaster”, Types-Natural and Man-made disasters, Natural disasters – Types, effects, damages, Man-made disasters – Types and their description, Disaster management, and Examples of Global Environmental Disasters.

Chapter 9 Global Environmental Issues
Definition of Global Environmental Issues, Major current Environmental Problems.

Chapter 10 Demand for Energy and Energy Consumption
Energy consumption (definition), Types of energy consumption, Energy consumption in India.

Chapter 11 Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Sources of Energy
Sources of energy – Conventional sources of energy, Non-conventional sources of energy, Its advantages and disadvantages, Types of non-conventional sources of energy – Solar energy – Advantages – disadvantages, Wind energy – Advantages – disadvantages, Geothermal energy, Hydrogen energy, Tidal energy, Wave energy, Hydrogen energy – Advantages – disadvantages, Biomass energy – Advantages – disadvantages, Nuclear energy – Advantages – disadvantages.

Chapter 12 Energy Conservation
Need for Energy conservation, Energy saving tips

Chapter 13 Concept, Types, and Threats to Biodiversity
Definition of Biodiversity and its types, Bio-geo-graphical classification of India, Threats to Biodiversity.

Chapter 14 Significance of Biodiversity
Benefits of Biodiversity

Chapter 15 Conservation of Biodiversity
Measures to conserve Biodiversity – Insitu conservation, Exsitu conservation, Acts of Biodiversity.

Chapter 16 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
The environmental Impact Assessment Definition uses Methodology and an Environmental Impact statement.

Chapter 17 Pollution Control
Air pollution control, Water pollution control, Solid waste management, Hazardous waste management, Biomedical waste management, E-waste management, Radio active management.

Chapter 18 Environmental Audit (E.A)
Definition of Environmental Audit and its types.

Chapter 19 What is Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Definition, Uses, Threats, Sustainable Consumption Definition, the difference between Sustainable Development and consumption.

Chapter 20 Environmental Laws and Policies
Environmental law of India – Its policies and activities, Pollution Control Boards.

Chapter 21 Global Conferences on Sustainable Development
Environmental issues and problems, Stockholm Declaration – 1972, Brundtland Commission – 1983, The Rio Summit, Montreal Protocol – 1987, The Kyoto Protocol – 1997, The Paris Protocol – 2015.

Chapter 22 Conventional Practices of Agriculture
Definition, Methods, Impact, Benefits, Impact of Conventional Agricultural Practices.

Chapter 23 Sustainable Agriculture
Definition, Principles, Methods

Chapter 24 Management of Agriculture Produce
Causes of Harvest loss and its solution, Steps involved in pre-Packing produce management.

We hope this TS Intermediate 1st Year Environmental Education Study Material Pdf Download in English Medium and Telugu Medium will be useful for students to attain the right approach for precisely answering the textbook questions. If there is any trouble in grasping the concepts related to TS Inter 1st Year Environmental Education Textbook Solutions Telangana, drop your questions in the comment and we will get back to you with a solution in time.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes

August 29, 2024August 28, 2024 by Murali

Students can make use of TSBIE Telangana TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes Pdf Download in English Medium and Telugu Medium to revise the chapters easily without having to worry about reading the textbooks. To understand all the crucial topics and concepts, nothing can be better than TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Notes made by expert teachers as per the latest syllabus.

Students can also check the TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material and TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Important Questions for strong academic preparation.

TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Notes

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Weightage Blue Print

Students can study the TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Notes to improve their knowledge about all the important topics and concepts in their curriculum. By strictly following TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes students can clear all their doubts and proceed with their preparation process for the exam.

TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Study Material Telangana | TS Intermediate 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Textbook Solutions Pdf

August 29, 2024August 28, 2024 by Mahesh

Here you will find Telangana TSBIE State Board Syllabus TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Study Material Pdf free download, TS Intermediate 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Textbook Solutions Questions and Answers in English Medium and Telugu Medium according to the latest exam curriculum. The chapter-wise TS Inter 1st Year Study Material will help the students in understanding the concept behind each question in a detailed way.

Students can check the TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Syllabus & TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Important Questions for strong academic preparation. Students can use TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Notes as a quick revision before the exam.

TS Intermediate 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Study Material Pdf Download | TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Textbook Solutions Telangana

TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Examination Pattern

General Instructions of Lectures: The Examination on the subject of Ethics and Human Values comprises a total of 100 marks. The breakup of marks is as follows.

1. Theory Examination consisting of 4 essays of 15 marks each – 60 marks
2. Group Project – 20 marks
3. Individual Project – 20 marks

For the purpose of the written examination, in order to provide a wide choice to the students, the 10 Chapters are being placed under 4 Sections. Two/Three questions will be given under each section. The student has to answer one question from each section.

Section A – Chapters 1, 3, 10
Section B – Chapters 2, 4, 9
Section C – Chapters 5, 7
Section D – Chapters 6, 8

(The division of chapters has been done in a random manner and does not reflect the relative importance of any Chapter/Chapters)

We hope this TS Intermediate 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Study Material Pdf Download in English Medium and Telugu Medium will be useful for students to attain the right approach for precisely answering the textbook questions. If there is any trouble in grasping the concepts related to TS Inter 1st Year Ethics and Human Values Textbook Solutions Telangana, drop your questions in the comment and we will get back to you with a solution in time.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material Telangana | TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Textbook Solutions Pdf

August 29, 2024August 28, 2024 by Mahesh

Here you will find Telangana TSBIE State Board Syllabus TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material Pdf free download, TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Textbook Solutions Questions and Answers in English Medium and Telugu Medium according to the latest exam curriculum. The chapter-wise TS Inter 1st Year Study Material will help the students in understanding the concept behind each question in a detailed way.

Students can check the TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Syllabus & TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Important Questions for strong academic preparation. Students can use TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Notes as a quick revision before the exam.

TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Study Material Pdf Download | TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Textbook Solutions Telangana

TS Inter 2nd Year Zoology Weightage Blue Print 2022-2023

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Weightage Blue Print

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Syllabus

Telangana TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Syllabus

Unit I Zoology – Diversity of Living World (30 Periods)

1.1 What is life?
1.2 Nature, Scope & meaning of zoology
1.3 Branches of Zoology
1.4 Need for classification- Zoos as tools for the study of taxonomy
1.5 Basic principles of Classification: Biological system of classification- (Phylogenetic classification only)
1.6 Levels of Hierarchy of classification
1.7 Nomenclature – Bi & Trinominal
1.8 Species concept
1.9 Kingdom Animalia
1.10 Biodiversity – Meaning and distribution (Genetic diversity, Species diversity, Ecosystem diversity(alpha, beta, and gamma), other attributes of biodiversity, the role of biodiversity, threats to biodiversity, methods of conservation, IUCN Red data books, Conservation of wildlife in India – Legislation, Preservation, Organisations, Threatened species.

Unit II Structural Organization in Animals

2.1 Levels of organization, Multicellularity: Diploblastic & Triploblastic conditions.
2.2 Asymmetry, Symmetry: Radial symmetry, and Bilateral symmetry (Brief account giving one example for each type from the representative phyla)
2.3 Acoelomates, Pseudocoelomates, and Eucoelomates: Schizo & Entero coelomates (Brief account of the formation of coelom)
2.4 Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous tissues. (make it a little more elaborative)

Unit III Animal Diversity – I: Invertebrate Phyla
General Characters – Strictly restrict to 8 salient features only
Classification up to Classes with two or three examples – Brief account only

3.1 Porifera
3.2 Cnidaria
3.3 Ctenophora
3.4 Platyhelminthes
3.5 Nematoda
3.6 Annelida (Include Earthworm as a type study strictly adhering to NCERT textbook)
3.7 Arthropoda
3.8 Mollusca
3.9 Echinodermata
3.10 Hemichordata

Unit IV Animal Diversity – II: Phylum: Chordata
General Characters – Strictly restrict to 8 points only Classification up to Classes – Brief account only with two or three examples

4.1 Sub phylum: Urochordata
4.2 Sub phylum: Cephalochordata
4.3 Sub phylum: Vertebrata
4.4 Super Class: Agnatha
4.4.1 Class Cyclostomata
4.5 Super Class: Gnathostomata
4.5.1 Super Class: Pisces
4.5.2 Class: Chondrichthyes
4.5.3 Class: Osteichthyes
4.6 Tetrapoda
4.6.1 Class: Amphibia (Include Frog as a type study strictly adhering to NCERT textbook)
4.6.2 Class: Reptilia
4.6.3 Class: Aves
4.6.4 Class: Mammalia

Unit V Locomotion & Reproduction in Protozoa

5.1 Locomotion: Definition, types of locomotor structures pseudopodia (basic idea of pseudopodia without going into different types), flagella & cilia (Brief account giving two examples each)
5.2 Flagellar & Ciliary movement – Effective & Recovery strokes in Euglena, Synchronal & Metachronal movements in Paramecium
5.3 Reproduction: Definition, types. Asexual Reproduction: Transverse binary fission in Paramecium & Longitudinal binary fission in Euglena. Multiple fission, Sexual Reproduction.

Unit VI Biology & Human Welfare

6.1 Parasitism and parasitic adaptation
6.2 Health and disease: introduction (follow NCERT) Life cycle, Pathogenicity, Treatment & Prevention (Brief account only)
1. Entamoeba histolytica 2. Plasmodium vivax 3. Ascaris lumbricoides 4. Wuchereria bancrofti
6.3 A brief account of pathogenicity, treatment & prevention of Typhoid, Pneumonia, Common cold, & Ringworm.
6.4 Drugs and Alcohol abuse

Unit VII Type study of Periplaneta Americana

7.1 Habitat and habits
7.2 External features
7.3 Locomotion
7.4 Digestive system
7.5 Respiratory system
7.6 Circulatory system
7.7 Excretory system
7.8 Nervous system – sense organs, the structure of ommatidium.
7.9 Reproductive system

Unit VIII Ecology & Environment

8.1 Organisms and Environment: Ecology, population, communities, habitat, niche, biome, and ecosphere (definitions only)
8.2 Ecosystem: Elementary aspects only Abiotic factors – Light, Temperature & Water (Biological effects only), Ecological adaptations
8.3 Population interactions
8.4 Ecosystems: Types, Components, Lake ecosystem
8.5 Food chains, Food web, Productivity and Energy flow in Ecosystem, Ecological pyramids – Pyramids of numbers, biomass, and energy.
8.6 Nutrition cycling – Carbon, Nitrogen, & Phosphorous cycles (Brief account)
8.7 Population attributes Growth, Natality, and Mortality, Age distribution, and Population regulation.
8.8 Environmental issues

We hope this TS Intermediate 1st Year Zoology Study Material Pdf Download in English Medium and Telugu Medium will be useful for students to attain the right approach for precisely answering the textbook questions. If there is any trouble in grasping the concepts related to TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Textbook Solutions Telangana, drop your questions in the comment and we will get back to you with a solution in time.