TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material Chapter 8 Ecology and Environment

Telangana TSBIE TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material 8th Lesson Ecology and Environment Textbook Questions and Answers.

TS Inter 1st Year Zoology Study Material 8th Lesson Ecology and Environment

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term ecology. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Ecology was defined as “the study of the relationship of organisms with their environment”.

Question 2.
What is autecology?
Answer:
Autecology is the ecology of a single species/population in relation to its environment. It is also known as species (population) ecology.

Question 3.
What do you call the study of interactions of organisms of a community?
Answer:
Synecology is a branch of ecology that deals with the structure, development and distribution of ecological communities.

Question 4.
What is an ecological population? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Population is a group of organisms of the same species, living in a specific area at a specific time.

Question 5.
Define a community. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Community is an association of the interacting members of populations of different autotrophic and heterotrophic species in a particular area.

Question 6.
What is an ecosystem? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Ecosystem is the next level of organisation above the level of biological community. An ecosystem is a functional unit of the biosphere in which members of the community interact among themselves and with surrounding environment.

Question 7.
Distinguish between ecosystem and biome.
Answer:

1. Ecosystem is a functional unit of biosphere in which members of the community interact among themselves and with surrounding environment.
2. A biome is a large community of plants and animals that occupies a vast region.

Question 8.
What is a biome? Name any two biomes you studied. (T.Q.)
Answer:
A biome is a large community of plants and animals that occupies a vast region.
eg : Tropical rain forest, desert, coniferous forest, tundra etc.

Question 9.
What is meant by ecosphere? (T.Q.)
Answer:
All the habitable zones on the Earth constitute the ecosphere or biosphere. It is the part of the Earth that supports life.

Question 10.
Define the term habitat.
Answer:
Habitat is the place in which an organism lives. It is comparable to the address of an organism.

Question 11.
Explain the difference between the ‘niche* of an organism and its ‘habitat’. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Niche : With in a community, each organism occupies a particular biological role or Niche. Niche is the functional role of an organism in an ecosystem.
2. Habitat is the place in which an organism lives.

Question 12.
A population has more genetically similar organisms than those on biotic community. Justify the statement. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Population is a group of organisms of the same species, living in a specific area at a specific time.
2. Community is an association of the interacting members of populations of different autotrophic and heterotrophic species in a particular area.

Question 13.
Among the red, green and brown algae that inhabit the sea, which is likely to be found in the deepest waters? Why?
Answer:
There are microbes like archaebacteria that flourish in hotsprings and in some parts of deep seas, where temperatures far exceed 100°C. Brown algae is likely to be found in the deepest waters as it is an alchea bacterium.

Question 14.
What is the source of energy for deep sea inhabitants?
Answer:
The source of energy for deep sea inhabitants is by the action of brown algae releasing energy during synthesis of their food. The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important in life. Also detritus food of sea bottom.

Question 15.
How do the fish living in Antarctic waters manage to keep their body fluids from freezing? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always below zero. Many species have evolved a relatively constant internal environment. It permits all biochemical reactions and physiological functions to proceed with maximal efficiency and thus, enhance the overall fitness of the species.

Question 16.
How does your body solve the problem of altitude sickness, when you ascend tall mountains? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Altitude also causes variations in temperature. For instance, the temperature decreases gradually as we move to the top of the mountains we experience altitude sickness if we ever been to any high altitude place. Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations. We can solve the problem because the body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production and increasing the rate of breathing.

Question 17.
Name the structural components of an ecosystem.
Answer:
The structural components of ecosystem are of two types: Abiotic and biotic factors. Abiotic factors are two types : physical and chemical.
Physical are light, temperature, soil, pressure etc.
Chemical are oxygen, carbondioxide, minerals of soil / water.

Question 18.
What is the effect of light on body pigmentation? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Light influences the colour of the skin. The animals which live in regions of low intensity of light have less pigmentation than that of the animals exposed to light.

Question 19.
Distinguish the terms phototaxis and photokinesis. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Phototaxis is oriented locomotor movement of an organism towards or away from the direction of light.
2. Photokinesis is the influence of light on non-directional movement of organisms as seen in the larvae of Pinnotheres macculatus-the mussel crab. Intensity of light influences the velocity of the movement of organism.

Question 20.
What is the primardial source of energy for all living organisms?
Answer:
The primardial source of energy for all living organisms is Sunlight.

Question 21.
What are biological rhythms?
Answer:
In the bodies of organisms, many behavioural activities are repeated at regular intervals and these are called biological rhythms.

Question 22.
What are circadian rhythms?
Answer:
Biological rhythms that occur in a time period of 24 hours are circadian rhythms.

Question 23.
What is photoperiodism? (T.Q.)
Answer:
The duration of the light hours / exposure to light in a day is known as photoperiod. The response of organisms for the photoperiod is called Photoperiodism.

Question 24.
Distinguish between photoperiod and critical photoperiod. (T.Q.)
Answer:
The duration of the light hours / exposure to light in a day is known as Photoperiod. The specific day length which is essential for the initiation of seasonal events is called ‘Critical Photoperiod’.

Question 25.
Explain Bioluminescence.
Answer:
Production of light by certain living organisms is called Bioluminestence. The light emitted by living organisms is devoid of infrared rays and so it is called cold light.

Question 26.
Mention the advantages of some UV rays to us. [March 2014] (T.Q.)
Answer:
UV radiation helps in the conversion of sterols present in the skin into vitamin D in mammals.

Question 27.
Distinguish between the terms heat and temperature.
Answer:
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat.

Question 28.
Distinguish between minimum effective temperature and maximum effective temperature.
Answer:

1. The lowest temperature at which an organism can live indefinitely is called minimum effective temperature.
2. The maximum temperature at which a species can live indefinitely in an active state is called maximum effective temperature.

Question 29.
What is optimum temperature?
Answer:
The temperature at which the metabolic activities occur at the climax level is called “optimum temperature”.

Question 30.
What is cyclomorphosis? Explain its importance in Daphnia. [March 2019] (T.Q.)
Answer:
The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms is called cyclomorphosis. In Daphnia (water flea) the body may become elongated with hood or short with out hood depending upon seasons. Cyclomorphosis is a seasonal adaptation to changing densities of water in lakes based on seasons.

Question 31.
What are “regulators”? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Some organisms are able to maintain homeostasis by physiological (sometimes behavioural) means which ensures constant body temperature constant osmotic concentration. These are called regulators.

There are no perfect regulators. (Eg : Birds and Mammals)

Question 32.
What are ‘conformers’? (T.Q.)
Answer:
In aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes along with that of the surrounding water. Such animals are described as conformers. There are no perfect conformers.

Question 33.
Define commensalism. Give one example. [May 2017 – A.P.] (T. Q.)
Answer:
The interaction where one species is benefited and the other is neither benefited nor harmed is called “commensalism”.
Example : Barnacles growing on the back of a whale benefit while the whale derives no noticeable benefit.

Question 34.
Define mutualism. Give one example. [March 2015 – A.P.] (T. Q.)
Answer:
This type of interaction benefits both the interacting species.
Example: Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus and photosynthetic algae.

Question 35.
Define parasitism. Give one example.
Answer:
In parasitism only one species benefits and the interaction is detrimental to the other species. Parasite generally harms ho’st. Malarial parasite causes harm to the host man by causing malaria.

Question 36.
Define amensalism. Give one example. (T.Q.)
Answer:
In amensalism one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected.

Question 37.
What is predation? Give one example.
Answer:
Predation :
Only one species benefits and the interaction is detrimental to the other species. Tiger predates upon a deer.

Question 38.
What is meant by interspecific competition? Give one example. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Interspecific competition is a potent force in the process of organic evolution, involving natural selection.
Example : In intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast, the Starfish Pisaster is an important predator. In a field experiment, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of increased inter-specific competition.

Question 39.
Distinguish between predation and parasitism.
Answer:
In both parasitism and predation only one species benefits (parasite and predator, respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species (Host and Prey respectively). Sometimes predator controls over population of prey. Majority of parasites harm the host.

Question 40.
Distinguish between the interactions commensalism and amensalism.
Answer:
The interaction where one species is benefited and the other is neither benefited nor harmed is called “commensalism”.
Example: Barnacles growing on the back of a whale benefit while the whale derives no noticeable benefit.

In amensalism on the other hand one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected.

Question 41.
In an ecological food chain, what types of interactions exist between trophic levels?
Answer:
Types of interactions exist between trophic levels are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, amensalism, parasitism and predation.

Question 42.
What is camouflage? Give its significance. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically coloured (camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily by the predator.
Example : Stick insect.

Question 43.
What is Gause’s principle ? When is it applicable? (T.O.)
Answer:
Gause’s principle of competitive exclusion states that two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated in due course of time.

Question 44.
Name the association that exist in micorrhiza. (T.O.)
Answer:
Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants. The fungi help the plant in the absorption of essential nutrients from the soil while the plant in turn provides the fungi with energy yielding carbohydrates. It is mutualism.

Question 45.
What are lichens?
Answer:
Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.

Question 46.
Name the major types of ecosystems.
Answer:
Major types of ecosystems are basically two types : Natural and Artificial. Natural ecosystems are aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Artificial ecosystems are agro-ecosystems like cropland ecosystems, aquaculture ponds and aquaria.

Question 47.
Distinguish between natural ecosystem and an artificial ecosystem.
Answer:
Natural Ecosystems :
These are naturally occurring ecosystems and these is no role of humans in the formation of such types of ecosystems.

Artificial ecosystems :
These are man made ecosystems such as agricultural or agro ecosystems. They include cropland ecosystems, aquaculture ponds and aquaria.

Question 48.
What is an estuary?
Answer:
Estuary is the zone where river joins the sea. Sea water ascends up into the river twice a day.

Question 49.
How does an estuarine ecosysterri differ from freshwater ecosystem?
Answer:
The Freshwater Ecosystem :
Is the smallest aquatic ecosystem. It includes rivers, lakes, ponds etc. Fresh water ecosystem is studied under Limnology.

Estuarine Ecosystem :
Estuary is the zone where river joins the sea. Sea water ascends up into the river twice a day. Estuarine organisms are capable of with standing the fluctuations in salinity.

Question 50.
Distinguish between lotic and lentic habitats. [March 2018 – A.P.] (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. The still water bodies like ponds, lakes, reservoirs, etc., fall under the category of lentic ecosystems.
2. Streams, rivers and flowing water bodies are called lotic ecosystems.

Question 51.
What is limnology?
Answer:
The study of freshwater ecosystem is called as Limnology.

Question 52.
What is euphotic zone?
Answer:
It is the shallow part of the lake closer to the shore. Light penetrates up to the bottom. It is Euphotic zone. It has rich vegetation and higher rate of photosynthesis, hence rich in oxygen.

Question 53.
What is zone of compensation in an aquatic ecosystem? (T.Q.)
Answer:
The imaginary line that separates the limnetic zone from the profundal zone is known as zone of compensation / compensation point / light compensation level.

Question 54.
Distinguish between phytoplankton and zooplankton. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Chlorophyll bearing floating micro organisms present in the water form the phytoplankton, eg : diatoms, volvox.
2. Small microscopic floating animals present in the surface waters form the zooplankton, eg: rotifers, copepods, Daphnia.

Question 55.
Distinguish between neuston and nekton. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. The animals living at the air – water interface constitute the neuston.
2. The animals such as fishes, amphibians, water snakes which are capable of swimming constitute the nekton.

Question 56.
What is periphyton? (T.Q.)
Answer:
The animals that are attached to / creeping on the aquatic plants, such as the water snails, nymphs of insects, bryozoans, hydras constitute the periphyton.

Question 57.
What is benthos?
Answer:
The animals that rest on or move on the bottom of the lake constitute the ‘benthos’ eg: red annelids, chironomid larvae, crayfishes, some isopods, amphipods, clams, etc.

Question 58.
Write three examples for man-made ecosystems. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Examples for man-made ecosystems are 1) Cropland ecosystems 2) Aquaculture ponds 3) Aquaria.

Question 59.
What is meant by osmotrophic nutrition?
Answer:
Intake of pre-digested food material through the body surface is called osmotrophic nutrition.

Question 60.
Explain the process of ‘leaching’.
Answer:
By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil and get precipitated as unavailable salts.

Question 61.
What is catabolism?
Answer:
Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.

Question 62.
What is humification? Name the organisms which act on it.
Answer:
Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus. Microbes work on humus and make it further degraded.

Question 63.
What is PAR? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 percent of it is photosynthetically active radiation(PAR). Plants capture only 2-10 percent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire living world.

Question 64.
What is the percentage of PAR, in the incident solar radiation? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 percent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).

Question 65.
Define entropy. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Energy lost or not available for work in a system is called ENTROPY.

Question 66.
What is standing crop? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time, and it is called the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms or the number of organisms per unit area.

Question 67.
If you were to count the number of insects feeding on a big tree, and asked to graphically represent the relation of structure and function between the tree and insects, what kind of pyramid does it form ?
Answer:
It forms an inverted pyramid of Numbers.

Question 68.
Explain the terms GPP, NPP. (T.Q.)
Answer:
1) Gross primary productivity (GPP) of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.

2) Net primary productivity (NPP) :
Gross primary productivity minus respiratory loss (R) is the net primary productivity (NPP). On average about 20 – 25 percent of GPP is used for the catabolic (respiratory) activity.

Question 69.
Distinguish between GFC and DFC.
Answer:
a) GFC :
Grazing Food Chain also known as predatory food chain.

b) DFC :
Detritus Food Chain which begins with dead organic matter.
Some of the organisms of DFC may form the prey of GFC animals.

Question 70.
Name the trophic level(s) at which ‘decomposers’ feed.
Answer:
Decomposers break down complex organic matter into simple inorganic substances like CO₂, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition. It occupies first trophic level.

Question 71.
Distinguish between production and decomposition.
Answer:
a) The green paints in the ecosystem terminology are called producers. They synthesize the food by using solar energy. They form main source of food for the organisms.

b) Breaking down of complex organic matter into simple inorganic substances like carbondioxide, water and nutrients by decomposess (microbes) and this process is called decomposition.

Question 72.
Distinguish between upright and inverted ecological pyramids. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. In most ecosystems, all the pyramids of numbers, energy and biomass are upright i.e., produces are more in number and biomass than the herbivores, herbivores more in number and biomass than the carnivores.
2. In case of a parasitic food chain, the pyramid of numbers is inverted. Here in each trophic level from the bottom to the top, th’e numbers of organisms increase and form an inverted pyramid of numbers.

Question 73.
Distinguish between food chain and food web.
Answer:

1. When the path of food energy is ‘linear’ the components resemble the links of a chain and it is called food chain.
2. The natural interconnections of food chains form a network called food web.

Question 74.
Distinguish between litter and detritus. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Plant parts such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including their faecal matter, constitute the detritus.
2. Litter contains only dead decayed plant material mixed with mud and soil.

Question 75.
Distinguish between primary and secondary productivity. (T.Q.)
Answer:

1. Primary productivity is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a period of time by plants, during photosynthesis.
2. Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Question 76.
What is the effect of Carbon monoxide pollution on human beings?
Answer:
CO interferes with O₂ transport. CO causes symptoms such as headache and blurred vision at lower concentrations. In higher concentrations. It leads to coma and death.

Question 77.
What is ‘Green House Effect’?
Answer:
The green house effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.

Question 78.
Which air pollutants are chiefly responsible for acid rains? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are the major causes of acid rains.

Question 79.
What is BOD? (T.Q.)
Answer:
BOD (biological oxygen demand) is a measure of the content of biologically degradable substances in sewage. Micro organisms involved in biodegradation of organic matter in water bodies consume a lot of oxygen, and as a result there is a sharp decline in dissolved oxygen causing death offish and other aquatic animals.

Question 80.
What is biological magnification? [March 2020, ’13] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Increase in the concentration of the pollutant or toxicant at successive trophic levels in an aquatic food chain is called Biological Magnification or Bio-magnification.

Question 81.
Distinguish between ‘Global warming’ and ‘Thermal pollution’?
Answer:

1. Increase in the level of green house gases has led to considerable heating of the earth leads to Global warming. Global warming is causing climatic changes.
2. Water pollution caused by hot water coming out from industries, thermal power plants which is harmful to aquatic organisms is called thermal pollution.

Question 82.
Why are incinerators used in hospitals? [May/June 2014] (T. Q.)
Answer:
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants, harmful chemicals and also pathogenic micro- organisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. The use of incinerators (to burn wastes) is essential for disposal of hospital waste.

Question 83.
Why are catalytic converters used in automobiles?
Answer:
Fitting catalytic converters to the automobiles having expensive metals namely platinum, palladium and rhodium as catalysts which reduce emission of poisonous gases.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write about ecological hierarchy.
Answer:
Ecological Hierarchy :
Hierarchy means arrangement into a ‘graded series’. Ecological organization consists of eleven integrative levels, ranging from Cell to Ecosphere – cell, tissue, organ, organ – system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, biome and ecosphere (also called Biosphere).

Population :
Population is a group of organisms of the same species, living in a specific area at a specific time.

Community :
It is an association of the interacting members of populations of different autotrophic and heterotrophic species in a particular area. In a community, generally one or a few species dominate with reference to their numbers or size.

Ecosystem :
It is the next level of organization above the level of biological community. An ecosystem is a functional unit of the biosphere in which members of the community interact among themselves and with the surrounding environment, involving ‘flow of energy’ forming a well defined trophic structure.

Landscape :
It is the unit of land containing different ecosystems (mosaic of ecosystems) surrounded by natural boundaries. It is the level of organization higher than ‘ecosystem’.

Biome :
A ‘biome’ is a large community of plants and animals that occupies a vast region. There are ‘terrestrial biomes’ and ‘aquatic biomes’.

Ecosphere (Biosphere) :
All the habitable zones on the Earth constitute the ecosphere or biosphere. It is the part of the Earth that supports ‘life’.

Question 2.
Write a note on habitat and medium.
Answer:
Habitat and Medium: Ecologically, habitat is the place in which an organism lives. It is comparable to the ‘address’ of a person (as mentioned in the introduction page to ecology). For instance, the habitat of fish is a pond, lake, sea etc., the habitat of a lion is forest, the habitat of Ascaris is the ‘small intestine’ of man, and so on. The water surrounding the body of a fish is called the medium and the medium of a lion is the air around its body.

Question 3.
Considering the benefits of a constant internal environment to the organism, we tend to ask ourselves ‘why the conformers had not evolved to become regulators’? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Majority (99 percent) of animals cannot maintain a constant internal environment. Their body temperature changes with the ambient (surrounding) temperature. In aquatic animals the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes along with that of the surrounding water. Such animals are described as conformers. Conformer means adapt from one condition to a new or different conditions.

Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms. (Animals such as camels can be conformers upto a particular range of temperature and regulator afterwards). Heat loss or heat gain is a function of the surface area.

During the course of evolution, the costs and benefits of maintaining a constant internal environment are taken into consideration.

Question 4.
The individuals who have fallen through the ice and been submerged under cold water for long periods can sometimes be revived – explain. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always below zero. Having realized that the abiotic conditions of many habitats may vary over a time period. One would expect that during the course of millions of years of their existence, many species would have evolved a relatively constant internal environment. It permits all biochemical reactions and physiological functions to proceed with maximal efficiency and thus, enhance the overall fitness of the species. The familiar case of polar bears going into hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time. Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer related problems- heat and desiccation.

Question 5.
What is summer stratification? Explain. [March 2020] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Summer stratification :
During summer in temperate lakes, the density of the surface water decreases because of increase in its temperature (21-25°C). This ‘upper more warm layer’ of a lake is called epilimnion. Below the epilimnion there is a zone in which the temperature decreases at the rate of 1° C per meter in depth, and it is called thermocline or metalimnion. The bottom layer is the hypolimnion, where water is relatively cool, stagnant and with low oxygen content (due to absence of photosynthetic activity).

During autumn (also called Fall), the epilimnion cools down, and the surface water becomes heavy when the temperature is 4°C, and sinks to the bottom of the lake. Overturns bring about ‘uniform temperature’ in lakes during that period. This circulation during the autumn is known as the fall or autumn overturn. The upper oxygen rich water reaches the hypoliminion and the nutrient rich bottom water comes to the surface. Thus there is uniform distribution of nutrients and oxygen in the lake.

Question 6.
What is the significance of stratification in lakes? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Temperature variations occur with seasonal changes in the temperate regions. These differences in the temperature form ‘thermal layers’ in water. These phenomena are called thermal stratifications.

Water shows maximum density at 4°C. Rise or faII of temperatures above or below 4°C decreases its density. This anomalous property of water and the seasonal variations in temperature are responsible for the thermal stratification in temperate lakes.

Due to overturns, there is uniform distribution of nutrients and oxygen in the lake.

Question 7.
Explain van’t Hoff rule. (T.Q.)
Answer:
van’t Hoff’s rule :
van’t Hoff, a Nobel Laureate in thermochemistry, proposed that, with the increase of every 10°C, the rate of metabolic activities doubles. This rule is referred to as the van’t Hoff’s rule, van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the reaction rate is halved with the decrease of every 10°C. The effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction is expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q₁₀ value. Q₁₀ values are estimated taking the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X°C and rate of reaction at (X – 10°C). In the ‘living systems’ the Q₁₀ value is about 2.0. If the Q₁₀ value is 2.0, it means, for every 10°C increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.

Question 8.
Unlike mammals the reptiles cannot tolerate environmental fluctuations in temperature. How do they adapt to survive in desert conditions? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope with variations in their environment. Desert lizards manage to keep their body temperature fairly constant by behavioural means. They ‘bask’ (staying in the warmth of sunlight) in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort zone, but move into shade when the temperature starts increasing. Some species are capable of burrowing into the soil to escape from the excessive heat above the ground level.

Question 9.
Write a short note on soil as an ecological abiotic factor.
Answer:
Soil :
The nature and properties of soil in different places vary depending on the climate, and the ‘weathering’ processes involved. Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine the percolation and water-holding capacity of the soils. These characteristics, along with the parameters such as pH, mineral composition etc., determine to a large extent the vegetation in any area. This in turn dictates the type of aninmals that can be supported. Similarly, in the aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics often determine the type of benthic animals that can live there. ‘

Question 10.
How do terrestrial animals protect themselves from, the danger of dehydration of bodies? (T.Q.)
Answer:
In the absence of an external source of water, the kangaroo rat of the North American deserts is capable of meeting all its water requirements through oxidation of its internal fat (in which water is a by product – metabolic water). It also has the ability to concentrate its urine, so that minimal volume of water is lost in the process of removal of their excretory products.

Question 11.
How do marine animals adapt to hypertonic seawater? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Seawater is high in salt content compared to that of the body fluids. So, the marine animals continuously tend to lose water from their bodies by exosmosis and face the problem of dehydration. To overcome the problem of water loss, marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less numbers of nephrons. Such kidneys minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate water loss the marine fish drink more water, and along with this water, salts are added to the body fluids and disturb the internal equilibrium.

To maintain salt balance (salt homeostasis) in the body, they have salt secreting chloride cells in their gills. Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins eliminate salts in the form of salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the ducts of chloride secreting glands open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO) in their blood to keep the body fluid isotonic to the sea water and avoid dehydration of the body due to exosmosis.

Question 12.
Discuss the various types of adaptations in freshwater animals. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Adaptations in freshwater habitat :
Animals living in freshwaters have to tackle the problem of endosmosis. The osmotic pressure of freshwater is very low and that of the body fluids of freshwater organisms is much higher. So water tends to enter into bodies by endosmosis. To maintain the balance of water in the bodies, the freshwater organisms acquired several adaptations such as, contractile vacuoles in the freshwater protozoans, large glomerular kidneys in fishes, etc. They send out large quantities of urine, along which some salts are also lost.

To compensate the ‘salt loss’ through urine, freshwater fishes have salt absorbing ‘chloride cells’ in their gills. The major problem in freshwater ponds is – in summer most of the ponds dry up. To overcome this problem most of the freshwater protists undergo encystment. The freshwater sponges produce asexual reproductive bodies, called gemmules, to tide over the unfavourable conditions of the summer. The ‘African lungfish’, Protopterus, burrows into the mud and forms a ‘gelatinous cocoon’ around it, to survive, in summer.

Question 13.
Compare the adaptations of animals with freshwater and seawater mode of life. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Seawater is high in salt content compared to that of the body fluids. So, the marine animals continuously tend to lose water from their bodies by exosmosis and face the problem of dehydration. To overcome the problem of water loss, marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less numbers of nephrons. Such kidneys minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate water loss the marine fish drink more water, and along with this water, salts are added to the body fluids and disturb the internal equilibrium. To maintain salt balance (salt homeostasis) in the body, they have salt secreting chloride cells in their gills.

Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins eliminate salts in the form of salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the ducts of chloride secreting glands open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO) in their blood to keep the body fluid isotonic to the sea water and avoid dehydration of the body due to exosmosis.

Adaptations in freshwater habitat :
Animals living in freshwaters have to tackle the problem of endosmosis. The osmotic pressure of freshwater is very low and that of the body fluids of freshwater organisms is much higher. So water tends to enter into bodies by endosmosis. To maintain the balance of water in the bodies, the freshwater organisms acquired several adaptations such as, contractile vacuoles in the freshwater protozoans, large glomerular kidneys in fishes, etc. They send out large quantities of urine, along which some salts are also lost. To compensate the ‘salt loss’ through urine, freshwater fishes have salt absorbing ‘chloride cells’ in their gills.

The major problem in freshwater ponds is – in summer most of the ponds dry up. To overcome this problem most of the freshwater protists undergo encystment. The freshwater sponges produce asexual reproductive bodies, called gemmules, to tide over the unfavourable conditions of the summer. The ‘African lungfish’, Protopterus, burrows into the mud and forms a ‘gelatinous cocoon’ around it, to survive, in summer.

Question 14.
Distinguish between euryhaline and stenohaline animals. (T.Q.)
Answer:
For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pHr etc.,) of water becomes important. The salt concentration is less than 5 percent in inland, waters, and 30 – 35 percent in the sea water. Some organisms are tolerant to a wide range of salinities (euryhaline), but others are restricted to a narrow range (stenohaline). Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems, they would face.

The animals of brackish water are adapted to withstand wide fluctuations in salinity. Such organisms are called euryhaline animals and those that can’t withstand are known as stenohaline.

Question 15.
How do the non migratory animals overcome the unfavourable climatic conditions?
Answer:
In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled spores are formed which help them survive unfavourable conditions. They germinate (come out of the spore wall and produce a normal active organism) on the return of suitable environmental conditions.

Some animals can avoid the stress by escaping in ‘time’ (migration is escaping in ‘space’). The familiar case of ‘polar bears’ going into hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time. Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer-related problems – heat and desiccation.

Diapause :
Certain organisms show delay in development, during periods of unfavourable environmental conditions and spend some period in a state of ‘inactiveness’ called ‘diapause’. This dormant period in animals is a mechanism to survive extremes of temperature, drought, etc. It is seen mostly in insects and embryos of some fish. Under unfavourable conditions many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause.

Question 16.
Many tribes living in high altitude of Himalayas normally have higher red blood cell count (or) total haemoglobin that the people living in the plains. Explain. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Pressure is another factor that changes dramatically with depth in the ocean. Organisms on land face less than one ‘atmosphere’ of pressure at the sea level. Since water is much heavier than air, marine organisms are under much more pressure than those pn land. The pressure in water increases at the rate of 1 atmosphere per 10m depth. The organisms living in such extreme environments show a wide range of biochemical adaptations. Some organisms possess adaptations that are physiological and allow them to respond quickly to a stressful situation. If you had ever been to any high altitude place (e.g. > 3,500m Rohtang Pass near Manali and Manasarovar, in Tibet) you must have experienced what is called altitude sickness.

Its symptoms include nausea (vomiting sense), fatigue (tiredness) and heart palpitations (abnormality in heart beat). This is because in the low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes, the body does not get enough oxygen. But, you gradually get acclimatized and overcome the altitude sickness. How did your body solve this problem ? The body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production and increasing the rate of breathing. (Note : decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin).

Question 17.
An orchid plant is growing on the branch of mango tree. How do you describe this interaction between the orchid and mango tree? (T.Q.)
Answer:
This is an interaction called commensalism in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. An orchid growing as an epiphyte on mango branch, gets the benefit of exposure to hight, while the mango tree does not derive any noticeable benefit.

Question 18.
Do you believe that an ideal parasite should be able to thrive within the host without harming it? Then why didn’t natural selection lead to the evolution of such totally harmless parasites?
Answer:
No. I don’t believe that an ideal parasite should be able to thrive within the host without harming it. It is not possible.

Considering that the parasitic mode of life ensures free ‘lodging’ and ‘meals’, it is not surprising that parasitism has evolved in so many taxonomic groups from plants to higher vertebrates. Many parasites have evolved to be host – specific (they can parasitize only a specific species of host) in such a way that both host and the parasite tend to co – evolve; that is, if the host evolves special mechanisms for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the parasite has to evolve mechanisms to ‘counteract’ and ‘neutralize1 them, in order to continue successful parasitic relationship with the same host species. In order to lead successful parasitic life, parasites evolved special adaptations, such as.

a) loss of sense organs b) loss of digestive system and presence of high reproductive capacity c) presence of adhesive organs such as suckers and hooks d) complex life cycle.

Question 19.
The female mosquito is not considered completely a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction. Can you explain why?
Answer:
Considering that the parasitic made of life ensures free lodging and meals, it is not surprising that parasitism has evolved in so many taxonomic groups from plants to higher vertebrates. Many parasites have evolved to be host specific (they can parasitize only a specific species of host) in such a way that both host and the parasite tend to co-evolve, that is, if the host evolves special mechanism for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the parasite has to evolve mechanism to counteract and neutralise them, in order to continue successful parasitic relationship with the same host species.

The female mosquito is not considered completely a parasite although it needs our blood for reproduction as warm conditions are necessary to stimulate the production of eggs, because it otherwise had a semi independent and free life as it is a temporary ecto parasite. It needs no shelter, no anaerobic respiration.

Question 20.
Predation is not an association. Support the statement. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Predation :
We think of predation as nature’s way of transferring the energy fixed by plants to higher trophic levels. When we think of predatorand prey, most probably it is the tiger and the deer that readily come to our mind, but a sparrow eating any seed is also a type of predator (a seed predator also called granivore). Although animals eating plants are categorized separately as herbivores, they are, in a broad ecological context, not very different from predators.

Besides acting as ‘conduits’ / ‘pipelines’ for energy transfer across trophic levels, predators play other important roles. They keep the prey populations under control. In the absence of predators, the prey species could achieve very high population densities and cause instability in the ecosystem. Predators have different types of functions to play in nature. They include :

a) Predator as ‘a biological control b) Predators maintain species diversity c) Predators are prudent pertaining to preys.

Question 21.
Assigning the sign ‘+’ for beneficial, for detrimental, and ‘O’ for neutral interactions. Explain the different types of interspecific interactions in an ecosystem.
Answer:
Inter-specific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different species. They could be beneficial, detrimental or neutral (neither harmful nor beneficial) to one of the species or both. Assigning a ‘+’ sign for beneficial interaction,’-‘ sign for detrimental and ‘O’ for neutral interaction, let us look at all the possible outcomes of inter-specific interactions.

Population Interactions – Types

Name of Interaction	Species A	Species B
Mutualism	+	+
Competition	–	–
Predation	+	–
Parasitism	+	–
Commensalism	+	0
Amensalism	_	0

Question 22.
Predation has a significant role in maintaining of species diversity – discuss.
Answer:
Predators maintain ‘species diversity’: Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. In the rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast, the starfish Pisaster is an important predator. In a field experiment, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of increased inter-specific competition.

Question 23.
What is the biological principle behind the biologiqal control method of managing pest insects? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Predator as a biological control: The prickly pear cactus introduced intcTAustralia in the early 1920s caused havoc by spreading rapidly into millions of hectares of rangeland (vast natural grass lands). Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control only after a cactus feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country. Biological control methods adopted in agricultural pest control are based on the ability of the predators to regulate prey populations.

Question 24.
Name important defence mechanisms in plants against herbivory.
Answer:
For plants, herbivores are the predators. Nearly 25 percent of all insects are known to be phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants). The problem is particularly severe for plants because, unlike animals, they cannot escape from their predators. Plants therefore have evolved a variety of morphological and chemical defences against herbivores.

1. Thoms (Acacia, Cactus, etc.,) are the most common morphological means of defense. Many plants produce and store chemicals that make the herbivore sick when they are eaten, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction or even kill it.
2. You must have seen the weed Calotropis growing in abandoned fields. The plant produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides and that is why you never see any cattle or goats browsing on this plant.
3. A wide variety of chemical substances that we extract from plants on a commercial scale (nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.,) are produced by them actually as defences against grazers and browsers.

Question 25.
Discuss competitive release. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Competitive release :
Another evidence for the occurrence of competition in nature comes from what is called ‘competitive release’. Competitive release occurs when one of the two competing species is removed from an area, thereby releasing the remaining species from one of the factors that limited its population size. A species, whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical area because of the presence of a competitively superior species, is found to expand its distributional range dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed. This is due to the phenomenon called ‘competitive release’.

Connell’s ‘field experiments’ showed that, on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, the larger and competitively superior barnacle Balanus dominates the intertidal area, and excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone. When the dominant one is experimentally removed, the populations of the smaller ones increased. In general, herbivores and plants appear to be more adversely affected by competition than the carnivores.

Question 26.
Write a short note on the parasitic adaptations. (T.Q.)
Answer:
In order to lead successful parasitic life, parasites evolved special adaptations such as

1. Loss of sense organs (which are not necessary for most parasites).
2. Presence of adhesive organs such as suckers, hooks to cling on to the host’s body parts.
3. Loss of digestive system and presence of high reproductive capacity.
4. The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or vectors to facilitate parasitisation of their primary hosts.
   eg : 1 : The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate (secondary ) hosts (a snail and fish) to complete its life cycle.
   e.g. – 2 : The malaria parasite needs a vector (mosquito) to spread to other hosts.

Question 27.
Explain brood parasitism with a suitable example. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Brood parasitism :
Certain birds are fascinating examples of a special type of parasitism, in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets / allows the host incubates them. During the coruse of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size and colour to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest, eg: Cuckoo (Koel) laying its eggs in crow’s nest.

Question 28.
How do predators act as biological control? (T.Q.)
Answer:
Predator as a biological control: The prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920s caused havoc by spreading rapdily into millions of hectares of rangeland (vast natural grass lands). Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control only after a cactus feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country. Biological controlmethods adopted in agricultural pest control are based on the ability of the predators to regulate prey populations.

Question 29.
Explain the interaction mechanism between fig trees and wasps.
Answer:
In many species of fig trees, there is a one-to-one relationship with the pollinator species of wasp. It means that a given fig species can be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species and no other species. The female wasp uses the fruit not only as a site for oviposition (egg-laying site), but also uses the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing its larvae. The wasp pollinates the flowers of the fig plant while searching for suitable egg-laying sites. In return for the favour of pollination the fig offers the wasp some of its developing seeds, as food for the developing wasp larvae.

Question 30.
Write notes on the structure and functioning of an ecosystem. (T.Q.)
Answer:
An ‘ecosystem’ is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a ‘global ecosystem’, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic categories, namely natural and artificial. The natural ecosystems include aquatic ecosystems of water and terrestrial ecosystems of the land. Both types of natural and artificial ecosystems have several subdivisions.

Question 31.
Explain the different types of aquatic ecosystems.
Answer:
Aquatic Ecosystems :
Based on the salinity of water, three types of aquatic ecosystems are identified marine, freshwater, and estuarine.

i) The Marine Ecosystem :
It is the largest of all the aquatic ecosystems. It is the most stable ecosystem.

ii) Estuarine Ecosystem :
Estuary is the zone where river joins the sea. Sea water ascends up into the river twice a day (effect of high tides and low tides). The salinity of water in an estuary also depends on the seasons. During the rainy season out flow of river water makes the estuary less saline and the opposite occurs during the summer. Estuarine organisms are capable of withstanding the ‘fluctuations’ in salinity.

iii) The Freshwater Ecosystem :
The freshwater ecosystem is the smallest aquatic ecosystem. It includes rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. It is divided into two groups – the lentic and lotic. The still water bodies like ponds, lakes, reservoirs, etc., fall under the category of lentic ecosystems. The communities of the above two types are called lentic and lotic communities respectively. The study of freshwater ecosystem is called as limnology.

Question 32.
Explain the different types of terrestrial ecosystems. (T.Q.)
Answer:
The Terrestrial Ecosystems: The ecosystems of land are known as terrestrial ecosystems.

Some examples of terrestrial ecosystems are the forest, grassland and desert.
i) The Forest Ecosystems :
The two important types of forests seen in India are i) tropical rain forest and ii) tropical deciduous forests.

ii) The Grassland Ecosystems :
These are present in the Himalayan region in India. They occupy large areas of sandy and saline soils in Western Rajasthan.

iii) Desert Ecosystems :
The areas having less than 25 cm rainfall per year are called deserts. They have characteristics flora and fauna. The deserts can be divided into two types – hot type and cold type deserts. Thar Desert in Rajasthan is the example for hot type of desert. Cold type desert is seen in Ladakh.

Question 33.
Draw a diagram of the lake ecosystem and its physical or ecological divisions.
Answer:

Question 34.
Write about the producers of the littoral zone with suitable examples.
Answer:
Producers of the littoral zone :
Littoral zone is rich with pedonic flora (especially up to the depth of the effective light penetration). At the shore proper emergent vegetation is abundant with firmly fixed roots in the bottom of the lake and shoots and leaves are exposed above the level of water. These are amphibious plants. Certain emergent rooted plants of littoral zone are the cattails (Typha), bulrushes (Scirpus), arrowheads (Sagittaria). Slightly deeper are the rooted plants with floating leaves, such as the water lilies (Nymphaea), Nelumbo, Trapa, etc. Still deeper are the submerged plants such as Hydrilla, Chara, Potamogeton, etc. The free floating vegetation includes Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna (duckweed), Azolla, Eichhornia, etc.

The phytoplankton of the littoral zone composed of diatoms (Coscinodiscus, Nitzschia, etc.), green algae (Volvox, Spirogyra, etc.), euglenoids (Euglena, Phacus, etc.), and dinoflagellates (Gymnodinium, Cystodinium, etc.).

Question 35.
Write a short note on the limnetic zone of a lake ecosystem.
Answer:
Limnetic zone :
It is the open water zone away from the shore. It extends up to the effective light penetration level, vertically. The imaginary line that separates the limnetic zone from the profundal zone is known as zone of compensation/ compensation point / light compensation level. It is the zone of effective light penetration. Here the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration. Limnetic zone has no contact with the bottom of the lake.

Biota of the limnetic zone :
Limnetic zone is the largest zone of a lake. It is the region of rapid variations of the level of the water, temperature, oxygen availability, etc., from time to time. The chief autotrophs of this region are the phytoplankton such as the euglenoids, diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and green algae. The consumers of the limnetic zone are the zooplanktonic organisms such as the copepods. Fishes, frogs, water snakes, etc., form the limnetic nekton.

Question 36.
Write a short note on the profundal zone of a lake ecosystem.
Answer:
Profundal zone :
It is the deep water area present below the limnetic zone and beyond the depth of effective light penetration. Light is absent. Photosynthetic organisms are absent and so the water is poor in oxygen content. It includes mostly the anaerobic organisms which feed on detritus.

The organisms living in lentic habitat are classified into pedonic forms, which live at the bottom of the lake and those living in the open waters of lakes, away from the shore vegetation are known as limnetic forms.

Biota of the profundal zone :
It includes the organisms such as decomposers (bacteria), chironomid larvae, Chaoborus (phantom larva), red annelids, clams, etc., that are capable of living in low oxygen levels. The decomposers of this zone decompose the dead plants and animals and release nutrients which are used by the biotic communities of both littoral and limnetic zones.

Question 37.
Give a brief account of a lake ecosystem.
Answer:
The lake ecosystem performs all the functions of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of inorganic substances into organic material, with the help of the radiant solar.energy by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by the heterotrophs; decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the autotrohs (recycling of minerals).

Question 38.
How is a lake ecosystem described as a ‘micro-model’ for the entire biosphere?
Answer:
Lake Ecosystem :
To understand the fundamentals of an aquatic ecosystem, let us take a ‘lake’ as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather a simple, example that explains even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic ecosystem.

Lakes are large inland water bodies containing standing/still water (Recall: Lentic community). They are deeper than ponds (pond is not an ideal example as it is very shallow). Most lakes contain water throughout the year. In deep lakes, light cannot penetrate more than 200 meters, in depth. They are vertically stratified in relation to light intensity, temperature, pressure, etc., Deep water lakes contain three distinct zones namely, i) littoral zone, ii) limnetic zone, and iii) profundal zone. Hence lake ecosystem is described as a micro model for the entire biosphere.

Question 39.
In GFCs the number of trophic levels is restricted. Give reason.
Answer:
I. Grazing Food Chain (GFC) :
It is also known as predatory food chain. It begins with the green plants (producers) and the second, third and fourth trophic levels are occupied by the herbivores, primary carnivores and secondary carnivores respectively. In some food chains there is yet another trophic level – the climax carnivores. The number of trophic levels in food chains varies from 3 to 5 generally. Some examples for grazing food chain (GFC) are given below.

II. Parasitic food chain :
Some authors included the ‘Parasitic Food Chains’ as a part of the GFC. As in the case of GFCs, it also begins with the producers, the plants (directly or indirectly). However, the food energy passes from large organisms to small organisms in the parasitic chains. For instance, a tree which occupies the 1st trophic level provides shelter and food for many birds. These birds host many ectoparasites and endo-parasites. Thus, unlike in the predator food chain, the path of the flow of energy includes fewer, l^rge sized organisms in the lower trophic levels, and numerous, small sized organisms in the successive higher trophic levels.

Question 40.
What are the ecological limitations for ecological pyramids?
Answer:
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids :
There are certain limitations of ecological pyramids, such as-

1. It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels,
2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost never exists in nature,
3. It does not accommodate a food web,
4. moreover, saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.

Question 41.
How is the second law of thermodynamics applicable to the functional part of an ecosystem?
Answer:
The ecosystems are not exempted from the Second Law of thermodynamics. It states that no process involving energy transformation will spontaneously occur unless there is degradation of energy. As per the second law of thermodynamics – the energy dispersed is in the form of unavailable heat energy, and constitutes the entropy (energy lost or not available for work in a system). The organisms need a constant supply of energy to synthesize the molecules they require. The transfer of energy through a food chain is known as energy flow.

A constant input of mostly solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function. The important point to note is that the amount of energy available decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies, it is converted to detritus or dead biomas that serves as a source of energy for the decomposers. Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level, for their energy demands.

Question 42.
Discuss the main reason for the low productivity of ocean. (T.Q.)
Answer:
The element carbon constitutes 49 percent of the dry weight of organisms and is next only to water. Among the total carbon quantity present on the Earth, 71 percent is found dissolved in oceans. This ‘oceanic reservoir’ regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It will be interesting to know that the atmosphere only contains about 1 percent of the total global carbon. This is the main reason for the low productivity of ocean.

Question 43.
Explain the terms saprotrophs, detritivores, and mineralizers. (T.Q.)
Answer:
a) Saprotrophs :
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter (such as leaf litter, bodies of dead organisms). It is made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly the fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as saprotrophs.

b) Detritivores :
Plant parts such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including their faecal matter, constitute the detritus. Detritus is the raw material for the decomposition.

Detritivores (eg : earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles and this process is called fragmentation. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.

c) Mineralizers :
It is important to note that all the steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus. Humification and mineralization occur during decompositon in the soil. Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decompositon at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occurs by the process known as mineralization. Hence the microbes are called mineralizers.

Question 44.
Discuss the factors that influence the process of decomposition.
(OR)
Question 45.
Define decomposition and describe the process and products of decomposition. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Decomposition :
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of the detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.

Warm and moist environment favours decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobic environment ‘inhibit’ the decomposition resulting in build up of organic materials. As most of the decomposers are very small microscopic forms, they are also called ‘micro-consumers’.

Question 46.
Explain GFC.
Answer:

Question 47.
Write a short notes on the various trophic levels in a typical ecosystem. [March 2013]
Answer:
Energy flows into biological systems (ecosystems) from the Sun. The biological systems of environment include several food levels called trophic levels. A trophic level is composed of those organisms which have the same source of energy and having the same number of steps away from the sun. Thus a plant’s trophic level is one, while that of a herbivore – two, and that of the first level carnivore – three.

The second and third levels of the carnivores occupy fourth and fifth trophic levels respectively.

A given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a functional level. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, and a secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms.
Trophic levels in an ecosystem

Question 48.
Give examples for GFCs with three, four and five trophic levels from your locality. Explain the parasitic food chain. How does it differ from GFC?
Answer:
Grazing food chain :

Question 49.
Write a note on DFC. Give its significance in a terrestrial ecosystem. (T.Q.) [March 2018 – A.P.]
Answer:
Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Dead organisms of the grazing food chain form a source of energy for other organisms. Similarly, waste materials passed from the bodies of living organisms are also a source of energy for some organisms called decomposers like saprotrophs, detritivores and mineralizers. Saprotrophs are microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria, which live on dead organic matter. Detritivores ingest small fragments of decomposing organic materials, termed detritus. Mineralisers effect the mineralisation of humus.

Detritivores may be eaten by the carnivores, which may then be consumed by other carnivores, thus building up a food chain based on detritus. This is termed detritus food chain. Those feeding directly on the dead bodies or detritus are primary detritus feeders and those preying on these organisms are secondary detritus feeders.

Two typical detritus food chains of the woodland ecosystem are :

Question 50.
What is primary productivity? Give a brief description of the factors that affect primary productivity. (T.Q.)
Answer:
The rate of production of biomass is called productivity. It can be divided into primary and secondary productivities.

I. Primary productivity is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a period of time by plants, during photosynthesis. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

a) Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants for their catabolic process (respiration).

b) Net primary productivity Gross primary productivity minus respiratory loss (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP). On average about 20 – 25 percent of GPP is used for the catabolic (respiratory) activity.
GPP-R = NPP

The net primary productivity is the biomass available for the consumption of the heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).

II. Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Question 51.
Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of numbers and biomass. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Ecological Pyramids (Eltonian pyramids) :
You must be familiar with the shape of a pyramid. The base of a pyramid is broad and it narrows down towards the apex. The trophic relationship is expressed in terms of numbers; biomass or energy arranged one on the top of its lower trophic level, resulting in a pyramidal shape. It is a graphical representation of the trophic structure and function of an ecosystem.

The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level, while the apex represents the tertiary or top level / top order consumer. The three types of ecological pyramids that are usually studied are (a) pyramid of number, (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of energy. These pyramids were first represented by Elton, hence the name ELTONIAN pyramids / Ecological pyramids.

Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophical evel. No generalizations we make will be true if we take only a few individuals of any trophic level into account. In most ecosystems, all the pyramids – of numbers, energy and biomass are upright i.e., producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass than the carnivores. Also energy (available) at a lower trophic level is always more than that at a higher level.

There are exceptions to this generalization. In the case of a parasitic food chain, the pyramid of numbers is inverted.

Question 52.
Can you work out the number of trophic levels at which human beings can function in a food chain?
Answer:
Man occupies 3^rd trophic level being represented by secondary consumer. Some times man also occupies 2^nd tropic level as he becomes primary consumer feeding only on producers.

If he feeds on animals like fish, goat, prawns etc., he becomes secondary consumer in a food chain. But never goes to 4^th trophic level of tertiary consumer.

So total number of trophic levels at which human beings can function in a food chain are two or three levels.

Question 53.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Justify.
Answer:
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time, and it is called the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the “mass” of living organisms (biomass) or the number of organisms per unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight (dry weight) is more accurate because water contains no usable energy.

Question 54.
What are the deleterious effects of depletion of ozone in the stratosphere? [March 2020, ’19, May/June 2014] (T.Q.)
Answer:
The depletion of ozone is particularly marked over the Antarctic region. This has resulted in the formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly called as the ‘ozone hole’.

UV radiation with wavelengths shorter than that of UV-B, are almost completely absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, provided that the ozone layer is intact. But UV-B damages DNA and may induce mutations. It causes ageing of skin, damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers. In human eye, cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea, called snow blindness, cataract, etc. Such exposure may permanently damage the cornea.

Question 55.
Write a note on ‘algal blooms’.
Answer:
Algal blooms: Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes excessive growth of planktonic algae and the phenomenon is commonly called ‘algal blooms’. Algal blooms impart distinct colour to the water bodies and deteriorate the quality of water. It also causes mortality of fish. Some algae which are involved in algal blooms are toxic to human beings and animals.

Excessive growth of aquatic plants such as the common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), the world’s most problematic aquatic weed which is also called ‘Terror of Bengal’ causes blocks in our water ways. They grow faster than our ability to remove them. They grow abundantly in eutrophic water bodies (water bodies rich in nutrients) and lead to imbalance in the ecosystem dynamics of the water body.

Question 56.
Describe ‘Greenhouse Effect’. [May 17; Mar. 2020, 17, 14] (T.Q)
Answer:
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. It would be surprising to know that without greenhouse effect the average temperature of the Earth’s surface would have been a chilly – 18° C rather than the present average of 15° C.

When sunlight reaches the outermost layer of the atmosphere, clouds and gases reflect about one-fourth of the incoming solar radiation, and absorb some of it. Almost half of the incoming solar radiation falls on the Earth’s surface and heats it up, while a small proportion is reflected back. The Earth’s surface re-emits heat in the form of infrared radiation but part of this does not escape into space as atmospheric gases (e.g., carbondioxide, methane, etc.,) absorb a major fraction of it. The molecules of these gases radiate heat energy, and a major part of which again comes back to the Earth’s surface, thus heating it up once again.The above – mentioned gases – carbon dioxide and methane – are commonly known as greenhouse gases, because they are responsible for the greenhouse effect.

Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of the Earth leading to global warming.

Question 57.
Write notes on the following.
a) Radioactive waste disposal
b) e-wastes management
Answer:
Radioactive wastes :
Initially, nuclear energy was hailed as a non-polluting way for generating electricity. Later on, it was realised that the use of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems. The first is accidental leakages, as occurred in the Three Mile Island (USA) and Chernobyl (Russia) and the second is the safe disposal of radioactive wastes.

Radiation, that is released from nuclear waste is extremely dangerous to biological organisms, because it induces mutations. Exposure to high doses of nuclear radiation is lethal as it can lead to cancers (e.g. leukemia). Therefore, nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant and has to be dealt with utmost caution. Storage of nuclear wastes should be done in suitably shielded containers and buried deep in the soil or oceans (about 500 meters). Even when done so, geological upheavals can bring them up, some day and cause radiation.

Electronic wastes (e-wastes) :
Irreparable computers and other electronic goods constitute the modern day pollutants called electronic wastes (e-wastes), wases). E-wastes are buried in landfills or incinerated. Over half of the e-wastes generated in the developed world are exported to developing countries, mainly to China, India and Pakistan, where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered during recycling process.

Unlike developed countries, which have specifically built facilities for recycling of e-wastes, recycling in developing countries often invovles manual participation thus exposing workers to toxic substances present in e-wastes. Eventually recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-wastes provided it is carried out in an environmental friendly manner.

Question 58.
Discuss the role of women and communities in protection and conservation of forests in India.
Answer:
People’s participation in ‘protecting forests’ has a long history in India. In 1731, the king of Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked one of his ministers to arrange wood for constructing a new palace. The minister and workers went to a forest near a village, inhabited by Bishnois, to cut down trees. The Bishnoi community is known for its peaceful co-existence with nature. The effort to cut down trees by the king was thwarted by the Bishnois. A Bishnoi woman Amrita Devi showed exemplary courage lost their lives in their effort to save trees.

Nowhere in history do we find a commitment of this magnitude when human beings sacrificed their lives for the cause of the environment. The Government of India has recently instituted the “Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award” for individuals or communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary courage and dedication in protecting wildlife.

The Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas :
In 1974, local women showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from the axe of contractors by hugging the trees. People all over the world have acclaimed the Chipko movement. Realising the significance of participation by local communities the Governemnt of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the local communities for protecting and managing forests. In return for their services to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products (e.g. frutis, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.).

Question 59.
Discuss briefly the following : (T.Q.)
a) Greenhouse gases
b) Noise pollution
c) Organic farming
d) Municipal solid wastes
Answer:
a) Greenhouse gases :
Carbon dioxide and methane are commonly known as greenhouse gases, because they are responsible for the greenhouse effect.

b) Noise pollution :
In India, Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act came into force in 1981. In 1987 it was amended to include noise also as an air pollutant. Undesirably high sound constitute NOISE POLLUTION. Sound is measured in units called decibels (dB). The human ear is sensitive to sounds ranging from 0 to 180 dB. 0 dB is threshold limit of hearing and 120 dB is threshold limit for sensation of pain in the ear. Any noise above 120 dB is considered to be a noise pollution.

A brief exposure to extremely high sound level, 150 dB or more generated by jet planes while taking-off may damage eardrums causing permanent hearing impairment. Even long term exposure to a relatively lower level of noise of cities may also cause hearing impariment. Noise also causes auditory fatigue, anxiety, sleeplessness (insomnia), increased heart beat, altered breathing pattern thus causing considerable stress to humans.

c) Organic farming :
Integrated organic farming is a zero-waste procedure, where recycling of waste products is efficiently carried out. Wastes originated from one process are used as nutrients for other processes. This allows the maximum utilisation of resource and increases the efficiency of production. A method practised by Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana, is a very good example for this. He integrated bee-keeping, dairy management, water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes.

All these processes support one another and allow an extremely economical and substainable venture. Crop waste and cattle excreta (dung) are used to create compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer. Natural bio-gas generated in the process can be used for meeting the energy needs of the farm. Enthusiastic about spreading information and helping in the practice of integrated organic farming, Dagar has created by Haryana Kisan Welfare Club.

d) Municipal solid wastes :
Any thing (substance/ material / articles / goods) that is thrown out as waste in solid form is referred to as solid waste. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices, institutions, shops, hotels, restaurants etc., in towns and cities.

The municipal solid wastes generally consist of paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc. The wastes are burnt to reduce the volume of the wastes. But generally wastes are not completely burnt and left as open dumps which often serve as the breeding grounds for rats and flies. As the substitute for open-burning dumps, sanitary landfills are adopted. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and covered with dirt everyday. These is a danger of seepage of chemicals and pollutants from these landfills, which may contaminate the underground water resources.

Question 60.
Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures need to be taken to control ‘Global Warming’? [March 2015 – T.S. & A.P.] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of the earth leading to global warming. During the past century, the temperature of the earth has increased by 0.6°C. Most of it during the last three decades. Scientists believe, that this rise in temperature is leading to severe changes in the environment. Global warming is causing climate changes and is also responsible for the melting of polar ice. caps and other snow caps of mountains such as the Himalayas. Over many years, this will result in a rise in sea levels all over the world that can sub-merge many coastal areas. The total spectrum of changes that gldbal warming can bring about is a subject that is still under active research.

Global warming – Control measures :

1. The measures include cutting down use of fossil fuels
2. Improving efficiency of energy usage
3. Planting of trees, and avoiding deforestation
4. Slowing down the growth of human population.

Question 61.
Write critical notes on the following : (T.Q.)
a) Eutrophication
b) Biological magnification
c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment.
Answer:
a) Eutrophication :
Natural ageing of a lake by nutrient enrichment of its water is known as eutrophication. In a young lake, the water is cold and clear, supporting little life. Gradually nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates are carried into the lake via streams, in course of time. This encourages the growth of aquatic algae and other plants. Consequently, the animal life proliferates, and organic matter gets deposited on the bottom of the lake. Over centuries, as silt and organic debris piles up, the lake grows shallower and warmer. As a result, the aquatic organisms thriving in the cold environment are gradually replaced by warm-water organisms.

Marsh plants appear by taking root in the shallow regions of the lake. Eventually, the lake gives way to large masses of floating plants (bog) and finally converted into land.

b) Biomagnification :
Increase in the concentration of the pollutant or toxicant at successive trophic levels in an aquatic food chain is called Biological Magnification or Biomagnification. This happens in the instances where a toxic substance accumulated by an organism is not metabolized or excreted and thus passes on to the next higher trophic level. This phenomenon is well known regarding DDT and mercury pollution.

As shown in the above example, the concentration of DDT is increased at successive trophic levels starting at a very low concentration of 0.003 ppb (ppb = parts per billion) in water, which ultimately reached an alarmingly high concentration of 25 ppm (ppm = parts per million) in fish-eating birds, through biomagnification. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking, eventually causing decline in bird populations.

c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment :
Sewage arising from homes and hospitals may contain undesirable pathogenic microorganisms. If it is released untreated into water courses, there is a likelihood of outbreak of serious diseases, such as dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera etc.

Untreated industrial effluents released into water bodies pollute most of the rivers, fresh water streams, etc. Effluents contain a wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants such as oils, greases, plastics, metallic wastes, suspended solids and toxins. Most of them are non-degradable. Arsenic, Cadmium, Copper, Chromium, Mercury, Zinc, and Nickel are the common heavy metals discharged from industries.

Effects :
Orgnic substanes present in the water deplete the dissolved oxygen content in water by increasing the BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand). Most of the inorganic substances render the water unfit for drinking.

Removal of dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates and other nutrients and toxic metal ions and organic compounds is much more difficult. Domestic sewage primarily contains biodegradable organic matter, which will be readily decomposed by the action of bacteria and other microorganisms.

Water-logging and soil salinity :
Irrigation without proper drainage of water leads to water-logging in the soil. Besides affecting the crops, water-logging draws salt to the surface of the soil (salinisation of the top soil). The salt then is deposited as a thin crust on the land surface or starts collecting at the roots of the plants. This increased salt content is inimical (unfavourable) to the growth of crops and is extremely damaging to agriculture. Water-logging and soil salinity are some of the problems that have come in the wake of the Green Revolution.

Essay Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write an essay on temperature as an ecological factor. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Temperature :
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. The temperature on land or in water is not uniform. On land the temperature variations are more pronounced when compared to the aquatic medium, because land absorbs or loses heat much quicker than water. The temperature on land depends on seasons and the geographical area on this planet. Temperature decreases progressively when we move from the equator to the poles. Altitude also causes variations in temperature. For instance, the temperature decreases gradually as we move to the top of the mountains.

The Effects of Temperature in Lakes :
Thermal Stratification :
Temperature variations occur with seasonal changes in the temperature regions. These differences in the temperature form ‘thermal layers’ in water. These phenomena are called thermal stratifications.

Water shows maximum density at 4°C. Rise or fall of temperatures above or below 4°C decreases its density. This anomalous property of water and the seasonal variations in temperature are responsible for the thermal stratification in temperate lakes.

Summer stratification :
During summer in temperate lakes, the density of the surface water decreases because of increase in its temperature (21-25° C). This ‘upper more warm layer’ of a lake is called epilimnion. Below the epilimnion there is a zone in which the temperature decreases at the rate rate of 1°C per meter in depth, and it is called thermocline or metalimnion. The bottom layer is the hypolimnion, where water is relatively cool, stagnant and with low oxygen content (due to absence of photosynthetic activity).

During autumn (also called fall), the epilimnion cools down, and the surface water becomes heavy when the temperature is 4° C, and sinks to the bottom of the lake. Overturns bring about ‘uniform temperature’ in lakes during that period. This circulation during the autumn is known as the fall or autumn overturn. The upper oxygen rich water reaches the hypoliminion and the nutrient rich bottom water comes to the surface. Thus there is uniform distribution of nutrients and oxygen in the lake.

Winter stratification / stagnation :
The ‘Fall’ is followed by ‘Winter’. In this season the surface water cools down. The upper water freezes when the temperature reaches 0°C. Below the upper icy layer, the cool (4° C) water occupies the lake. The aquatic animals continue their life below the icy layer. At lower temperatures the activity of bacteria and the rate of oxygen consumption by aquatic animals decrease. Hence, organisms can survive below the frozen upper water without being subjected to ‘hypoxia’ (low oxygen availability).

In the ‘Spring season’ the temperatures start rising. When it reaches 4°C, the water becomes more dense and heavy and sinks to the bottom, taking ‘oxygen rich water’ to the bottom. The upper oxygen rich water sinks down and the bottom ‘nutrient rich water’ reaches the surface. It is called ‘spring overturn’. The lakes which show overturns twice a year are called ‘dfmictic lakes’. Thus ‘stratifications’ and ‘overturns’ help survival of organisms at all levels in deep lakes.

Biological effects of Temperature :
Temperature Tolerance :
A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures they are called eurythermal, but, a vast majority of organisms are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (such organisms are called stenotherma. The levels of thermal tolerance of different species determine their geographical distribution.

Temperature and Metabolism :
Temperature affects the working of enzymes and through it, the basal metabolism, and other physiological functions of organism. The temperature at which the metabolic activities occur at the climax level is called the ‘optimum temperature. The lowest temperature at which an organism can live indefinitely is called minimum effective temperature. If an animal or plant is subjected to a temperature below the minimum effective limit, it enters into a condition of inactiveness called chilLcoma. The metabolic rate increases with the rise of temperature from the minimum effective temperature to optimum temperature.

The maximum temperature at which a species can live indefinitely in an active state is called maximum effective temperature. If the temperature is raised above the maximum effective temperature, the animals enter into ‘heat coma’. The maximum temperature varies much in different animals.

van’t Hoff’s rule :
van’t Hoff, a Nobel Laureate in thermochemistry, proposed that, with the increase of every 10°C, the rate of metabolic activities doubles. This rule is referred to as the van’t Hoff’s rule, van’t Hoffs rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the reaction rate is halved with the decrease of every 10°C. The effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction is expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q₁₀ value. Q₁₀ values are estimated taking the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X°C and rate of reaction at (X – 10°C). In the ‘living systems’ the Q₁₀ value is about 2.0. If the Q₁₀ value is 2.0, it means, for every 10° C increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.

Cyclomorphosis :
The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms is called cyclomorphosis. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in the cladoceran (a sub group of Crustacea) Daphnia (water flea). In the winter season the head of Daphnia is ’round’ in shape (typical or non-helmet morph). With the onset of the spring season, a small ‘helmet’/ ‘hood’ starts developing on it. The helmet attains the maximum size in summer. In ‘autumn’ the helmet starts receding. By the winter season, the head becomes round. Some scientists are of the opinion that cylomorphosis is a seasonal adaptation to changing densities of the water in

lakes – in summer as the water is less dense Daphnia requires a larger body surface to keep floating easily. During winter the water is more dense, and so it does not require a larger surface area of the body to keep floating. Others believe that these cyclic changes are adaptations to ‘stabilize the movement’ in water. Compared to the ’typical morphs’, the ‘helmeted morphs’ can resist the water currents better to stay in the water rich in food materials.

Temperature adaptations :
Temperature adaptations in animals can be dealt under three heads a) Behavioural adaptations, b) Morphological and Anatomical adaptations and c) Physiological adaptations.

a) Behavioural adaptations :
Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope with variations in their environment. Desert lizards manage to keep their body temperature fairly constant by behavioural means. They ‘bask’ (staying in the warmth of sunlight) in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort zone^ but move into shade when the temperature starts increasing. Some species are capable of burrowing into the soil to escape from the excessive heat above the ground level.

b) Morphological and anatomical adaptations :
In the polar seas, aquatic mammals such as the seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) that acts as an insulatpr and reduces the loss of body heat, underneath their skin.

The animals which inhabit the colder regions have larger body size with greater mass. The body mass is useful to generate more heat. As per Bergmann’s rule mammals and other warm blooded animals living in colder regions have less surface area to body volume ratio’, than their counterparts living in the tropical regions.

The small surface area helps to conserve heat. For instance, the body size of American moose/Eurasian elk (Alces alces), increases with the latitudes in which they live. Moose of northern part of Sweden shows 15-20% more body mass than the same species (counterparts) living in the southern Sweden.

Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter earlobes and limbs (extremities of the body) to minimize heat loss. Large earlobes and long limbs increase the surface.area without changing the body volume. This is known as Allen’s rule. For instance, the polar fox, Vulpes lagopus (formerly called Alopex lagopus), has short extremities to minimize the heat loss from the body. In contrast, the desert fox, Vulpes zerda, has large earlobes and limbs to facilitate better ‘heat loss’ from the body.

c) Physiological adaptations :
In most animals, all the physiological functions proceed ‘optimally’ in a narrow temperature range (in humans, it is 37° C). But there are microbes (archaebacteria) that flourish in hot springs and in some parts of deep seas, where temperatures far exceed 100° C. Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always below zero. Having realized that the abiotic conditions of many habitats may vary over a time period, we now ask – How do the organisms living in such habitats manage with stressful conditions? One would expect that during the course of millions of years of their existence, many species would have evolved a relatively constant internal (within the body) environment.

It permits all biochemical reactions and physiological functions to proceed with maximal efficiency and thus, enhance the over all’ fitness’ of the species. This constancy, could be chiefly in terms of optimal temperature and osmotic concentration of body fluids. So the organism should try to maintain the constancy of its internal environment (homeostasis) despite varying external environmental conditions that tend to upset its homeostasis. This is achieved by the processes described below.

(i) Regulate :
Some organisms are able to maintain homeostasis by physiological (sometimes behavioural also ) means which ensures constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration, etc. All birds and mammals, and a very few lower vertebrate and invertebrate species are indeed capable of such regulation (thermoregulation and osmoregulation). Evolutionary biologists believe that the ‘success’ of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain a constant body temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or in the Sahara desert.

The mechanisms used by most mammals to regulate their body temperature are similar to the one that we, the humans use. We maintain a constant body temperature of 37°C. In summer, when outside temperature is more than our body temperature, v.e sweat profusely. The resulting ‘evaporative cooling’ brings down the body temperature. In winter when the temperature is much lower than 37°C, we start to shiver (a kind of exercise which produces heat and raises the body temperature – a type of body’s own defence mechanism against low temperature). Plants, on the other hand, do rvot have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures.

ii) Conform :
Majority (99 percent) of animals cannot maintain a constant internal environment. Their body temperature changes with the ambient (surrounding) temperature. In aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes along with that of the surrounding water. Such animals are described as ‘conformers’.

(iii) Partially regulate :
Animals such as ‘camels’ can be ‘conformers’ up to a particular range of temperature and ‘regulator’ afterwards. So, they are described as ‘partial regulators’ or ‘partial conformers’.

Thermoregulation is energetically ‘expensive’ for many organisms. This is particularly true in small animals like shrews and humming birds. Heat loss or heat gain is a function of the surface area. Since small animals have a larger surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is cold outside; then they have to spend much energy to generate Body heat through metabolism. This is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found in the ‘polar regions’. During the course of evolution, the costs and benefits of maintaining a constant internal environment are taken into consideration. Some species have evolved the ability to regulate, but only over a limited range of environmental conditions, beyond which they simply conform.

If the stressful external conditions are localized or remain only for as short duration, the organism has two other alternatives.

(iv) Migrate :
The organism can move away temporarily from the ‘stressful habitat’ to a more ‘hospitable’ (comfortable) area and return when the stressful period is over. In human analogy (comparison), this strategy is comparable a person moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer. Many animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake long-distance migrations to more hospitable areas. Every winter, many places in India including the famous Keoladeo or Keoladeo Ghana National park (Formerly – Bharatpur bird sanctuary) in Rajasthan and Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh host thousands of ‘migratory birds’ coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.

(v) Suspend life activities :
In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled spores are formed which help them survive unfavoruable conditions. They germinate (come out of the spore wall and produce a normal active organisms) on the return of suitable environmental conditions.

Some animals can avoid the stress by escaping in ‘time’ (migration is – escaping in space’). The familiar case of ‘Polar bears’ going into hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time. Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer-related problems – heat and desiccation.

Diapause :
Certain organisms show delay in development, during periods of unfavourable environmental conditions and spend some period in a state of ‘inactiveness’ called ‘diapause’. This dormant period in animals is a mechanism to survive extremes of temperature, drought, etc. It is seen mostly in insects and embryos of some fish. Under unfavourable conditions many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause.

Question 2.
Write an essay on water as an ecological factor. (T.Q.)
Answer:
Water :
Water is another important factor influencing the life of organisms. Life is unsustainable without water. Its availability is so limited in deserts that only certain special adaptations make it possible for them to live there. You might think that organisms living in oceans, lakes and rivers should not face any water-related problems, but it is not true. For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pH, etc.,) of water becomes important.

The salt concentration is less than 5 percent in inland waters, and 30 – 35 percent in the seawater. Some organisms are tolerant to a wide range of salinities (euryhaline), but others arerestricted to a narrow range (stenohaline). Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems, they would face.

Adaptations in freshwater habitat: Animals living in freshwaters have to tackle the problem of endosmosis. The osmotic pressure of freshwater is very low and that of the body fluids of freshwater organisms is much higher. So water tends to enter into bodies by endosmosis. To maintain the balance of water in the bodies, the freshwater organisms acquired several adaptation such as, contractile vacuoles in the freshwater protozoans, large glomerular kidneys in fishes, etc. They send out large quantities of urine, along which some salts are also lost.

To compensate the ‘salt loss’ through urine, freshwater fishes have ‘salt absorbing’ ‘chloride cells’ in their gills. The major problem in freshwater ponds is – in summer most of the ponds dry up. To overcome this problem most of the freshwater protists undergo encystment. The freshwater sponges produce asexual reproductive bodies, called gemmules, to tide over the unfavourable conditions of the summer. The ‘African lungfish’, Protopterus, burrows into the mud and forms a ‘gelatinous cocoon’ around it, to survive, in summer.

Adaptations in marine habitat :
Seawater is high in salt content compared to that of the body fluids. So, the marine animals continuously tend to lose water from their bodies by exosmosis and face the problem of dehydration. To overcome the problem of water loss, marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less number of nephrons. Such kidneys minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate water loss the marine fish drink more water, and along with this water, salts are added to the body fluids and disturb the internal equilibrium.

To maintain salt balance (salt homeostasis) in the body, they have salt secreting chloride cells in their gills. Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins eliminate salts in the form of salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the ducts of chloride secreting glands open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO) in their blood to keep the body fluid isotonic to the sea water and avoid dehydration of the body due to exosmosis.

Water related adaptations in brackish water animals :
The animals of brackish water are adapted to withstand wide fluctuations in salinity. Such organisms are called euryhaline animals and those that can’t withstand are known as stenohaline. The migratory fishes such as salmon and Hilsa are anadromous fishes i.e., they migrate from the sea to freshwater, for breeding; Anguilla bengalensis is a catadromous fish i.e., it migrates from the river to sea, for breeding. In these fishes their glomerular kidneys are adjusted to changing salinities.

The chloride cells are adapted to excrete or absorb salts depending on the situation. On entering the river salmon drinks more freshwater to maintain the concentration of body fluids equal to that of the surround water.

Water related adaptations for terrestrial life :
In the absence of an external source of water, the kangaroo rat of the North American deserts is capable of meeting all its water requirements through oxidation of its internal fat (in which water is a by product – metabolic water). It also has the ability to concentrate its urine, so that minimal volume of water is lost in the process of removal of their excretory products.

Question 3.
Give an account of various types of interactions among the animal species of an ecosystem.
Answer:
Inter – specific Interactions :
Inter – specific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different species. They could be beneficial, detrimental or neutral (neither harmful nor beneficial) to one of the species or both. Assigning a V sign for beneficial interaction, sign for detrimental and ‘O’ for neutral interaction, let us look at all the possible outcomes of inter-specific interactions.

The interactions between species are grouped into four types. They are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism and amensalism. Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in their interactions with each other. The interaction where one species is benefited and the other is neither benefited nor harmed is called commensalism. In amensalism on the other hand one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected. In both parasitism and ‘predation’only one species benefits (parasite and predator, respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species (host and prey, respectively). Predation, parasitism and commensalisms share a common characteristic – the interacting species live closely together.

Population Interactions – Types

Name of Interaction	Species A	Species B
Mutualism	+	+
Competition	–	–
Predation	+	–
Parasitism	+	–
Commensalism	+	0
Amensalism	_	0

Predation :
What would happen to all the energy fixed by autotrophic organisms if the community has no animals to eat the plants? We can think Of predation as nature’s way of transferring the energy fixed by plants to higher trophic levels. When we think of predator and prey, most probably it is the tiger and the deer that readily come to our mind, but a sparrow eating any seed is also a type of predator (a seed predator also called granivore). Although animals eating plants are categorized separately as herbivores, they are, in a broad ecological context, not very different from predators.

Besides acting as ‘conduits’ / ‘pipelines’ for energy transfer across trophic levels, predators play other important roles. They keep the prey populations under control. In the absence of predators, the prey species could achieve very high population densities and cause instability in the ecosystem. Predators have different types of functions to play in nature. They include :

A. Predator as a biological control :
The prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920s caused havoc by spreading rapidly into millions of hectares of rangeland (vast natural grass lands). Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control only after a cactus feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country. Biological control methods adopted in agricultural pest control are based on the ability of the predators to regulate prey populations.

B. Predators maintain ‘species diversity’ :
Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. In the rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast, the starfish Pisaster is an important predator. In a field experiemnt, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of increased inter-specific competition.

C. Predators are prudent (practical) pertaining to preys :
If a predator is too efficient and overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct and following it, the predator will also become extinct due to lack of food. This is the reason why predators in nature are ‘prudent’.

Prey species have evolved various defenses to lessen the impact of predation they include :

a) Preys fool (deceive) or avoid their predators :
Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically – coloured (camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily by the predator. Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the predators.

b) Preys defend by becoming distasteful to predators :
The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) because of a special chemical present in its body. Interestingly, the butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous weed.

c) Plants too have their defensive mechanisms :
For plants, herbivores are the predators. Nearly 25 percent of all insects are known to be phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants). The problem is particularly severe for plants because, unlike animals, they cannot escape from their predators. Plants therefore have evolved a variety of morphological and chemical defences against herbivores.

i) Thorns (Acacia, Cactus, etc.,) are the most common morphological means of defense. Many plants produce and store chemicals that make the herbivore sick when they are eaten, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction or even kill it.

ii) We must have seen the weed Calotropis growing in abandoned fields. The plant produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides and that is why we never see any cattle or goats browsing on this plant.

iii) A wide variety of chemical substances that we extract from plants on a commercial scale (nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.,) are produced by them actually as defences against grazers and browsers. Competition: When Darwin spoke of the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest in nature, he was convinced that interspecific competition is a ’potent force’ in the process of organic evolution, involving Nature Selection. It is generally believed that competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources that are limited, but this is not entirely true.

Parasitism :
Considering that the parasitic mode of life ensures free ‘lodging’ and ‘meals’, it is not surprising that parasitism has evolved in so many taxonomic groups from plants to higher vertebrates. Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific (they can parasitize only a specific species of host) in such a way that both host and the parasite tend to co-evolve; that is, if the host evolves special mechanisms for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the parasite has to evolve mechanisms to ‘counteract’ and ‘neutralize’ them, in order to continue successful parasitic relationship with the same host species. In order to leacl successful parasitic life, parasites evolved special adaptations, such as :
In order to lead successful parasitic life, parasites evolved special adaptations such as.

1. Loss of sense organs (which are not necessary for most parasites).
2. Presence of adhesive organs such as suckers, hooks tq cling on to the host’s body parts.
3. Loss of digestive system and presence of high reproductive capacity.
4. The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or vectors to facilitate parasitisation of their primary hosts.

e.g : 1: The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate (secondary ) hosts (a snail anda fish)to complete its life cycle.

e.g : 2 : The malaria parasite needs a vector (mosquito) to spread to otehr hosts. Majority of the parasites harm the host. They may reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host and reduce its population density. They might render the host more vulnerable to predation by making it physically weak.

Commmensalism :
This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. Barnacles growing on the back of a whale benefit while the whale derives no noticeable benefit.

Mutualism :
This type of interaction benefits both the interacting species.

The most common examples of mutualism are found in plant-animal relationships. Plants need the help of animals for pollinating their flowers and dispersing their seeds. Animals obviously have to be paid ‘fees’ for the services that plants derive from them. Plants offer rewards in the form of pollen and nectar for pollinators and juicy and nutritious fruits for seed dispersing animals.

Question 4.
Describe lake as an ecosystem giving examples for the various zones and the biotic components in it. [March 2015 – T.S ; March 2013] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Lake Ecosystem :
To understand the fundamentals of an aquatic ecosystem, let us take a ‘lake’ as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather a simple example that explains even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic ecosystem.

Lakes are large inland water bodies containing standing/still water (Recall: Lentic community). They are deeper than ponds (pond is not an ideal example as it is very shallow). Most lakes contain water throughout the year. In deep lakes, light cannot penetrate more than 200 meters, in depth. They are vertically stratified in relation to light intensity, temperature, pressure, etc. Deep water lakes contain three distinct zones namely, i) littoral zone, ii) limnetic zone, and iii) profundal zone.

Littoral zone :
It is the shallow part of the lake closer to the shore. Light penetrates up to the bottom. It is ‘euphoric’ (having good light), has rich vegetation and higher rate of photosynthesis, hence rich in oxygen.

Limnetic zone :
It is the open water zone away from the shore. It extends up to the effective light penetration level, vertically. The imaginary line that separates the limnetic zone from the profundal zone is known as zone of compensation/ compensation point / light compensation level. It is the zone of effective light penetration. Here the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration. Limnetic zone has no contact with the bottom of the lake.

Profundal zone :
It is the deep water area present below the limnetic zone and beyond the depth of effective light penetration. Light is absent. Photosynthetic organisms are absent and so the water is poor in oxygen content. It includes mostly the anaerobic organisms which feed on detritus.

The organisms living in lentic habitat are classified into pedonic forms, which live at the bottom of the lake and those living in the open waters of lakes, away from the shore vegetation are known as limnetic forms.

Biota (animal and plant life of a particular region) of the littoral zone :
Littoral zone is rich with pedonic flora (especially up to the depth of the effective light penetration.) At the shore proper emergent vegetation is a abundant with firmly fixed roots in the bottom of the lake and shoots and leaves are exposed above the level of water. These are amphibious plants. Certain emergent rooted plants of littoral zone are the cattails (Typha), bulrushes (Scirpus), arrowheads (Sagittaria). Slightly deeper are the rooted plants with floating leaves, such as the water lilies (Nymphaea), Nelumbo, Trapa, etc. Still deeper are the submerged plants such as Hydrilla, Chara, Potamogeton, etc. The free floating vegetation includes Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna (duckweed), Azolla, Eichhornia, etc.

The phytoplankton of the littoral zone composed of diatoms (Coscinodiscus, Nitzschia, etc.), green algae (Volvox, Spirogyra, etc.), euglenoids (Euglena, Phacus, etc.), and dinoflagellaes (Gymnodinium, Cystodinium, etc.)

Animals, the consumers of the littoral zone, are abundant in this zone of the lake. These are categorized into zooplankton, neuston, nekton, periphyton, and benthos. The zooplankton of the littoral zone consists of ‘water fleas’ such as Daphnia rotifers and ostracods.

The animals living at the air – water interface constitute the ‘neuston’. They are of two types, the epineuston and hyponeuston. Water striders (Gerris), beetles, water bugs (Dineutes) form the epineustone / supraneuston and the hyponeuston/ infraneuston includes the ‘larvae of mosquitoes’.

The animals such as fishes, amphibians, water snakes, terrapins, insects like ‘water scorpion’ (Ranatra), ‘back swimmer’ (Notonecta), ‘dividing beetles’ (Dytiscus), capable of swimming constitute the nekton.

The animals that are attached to / creeping on the aquatic plants such as the ‘water snails’, ‘nymphs of insects’, ‘bryozoans’, ‘turbellarians’, etc., constitute the ‘periphyton’.

The animals that rest on or move on the bottom of the lake constitute the ‘benthos’ e.g. red annelids, chironomid larvae, cray fishes, some isopods, amphipods, clams, etc.

Biota of the limnetic zone :
Limnetic zone is the largest zone of a lake. It is the region of rapid variations of the level of the water, temperature, oxygen availability, etc., from time to time. The limnetic zone has autotrophs (photosynthetic plants) in abundance. The chief autotrophs of this region are the phytoplankton such as the euglenoids, diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and green algae. The consumers of the limnetic zone are the zooplanktonic organisms such as the copepods. Fishes, frogs, water snakes, etc., form the limnetic nekton.

Biota of the profundal zone :
It includes the organisms such as decomposers (bacteria), chironomid larvae, Chaoborus (Phantom larva), red annelids, clams, etc., that are capable of living in low oxygen levels. The decomposers of this zone decompose the dead plants and animals and release nutrients which are used by the biotic communities of both littoral and limnetic zones.

The lake ecosystem performs all the functions of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of inorganic substances into organic material, with the help of the radiant solar energy by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by the heterotrophs; decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the autotrophs (recycling of minerals).

Question 5.
Give an account of the various types of ecosystems on the Earth.
Answer:
An ‘ecosystem’ is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a ‘global ecosystem’, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic categories, namely natural and artificial. The natural ecosystems include aquatic ecosystems of water and terrestrial ecosystems of the land. Both types of natural and artificial ecosystems have several subdivisions.

The Natural Ecosystems :
These are naturally occurring ecosystems and there is no role of humans in the formation of such types of ecosystems. These are categorized mainly into two types – aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Aquatic Ecosystems :
Based on the salinity of water, three types of aquatic ecosystems are identified marine, freshwater, and estuarine.

i. The Marine Ecosystem :
It is the largest of all the aquatic ecosystems. It is the most stable ecosystems.

ii. Estuarine Ecosystem :
Estuary is the zone where river joins the sea. Sea water ascends up into the river twice a day (effect of high tides and low tides). The salinity of water in an estuary also depends on the seasons. During the rainy season out flow of river water makes the estuary less saline and the opposite occurs during the summer. Estuarine organisms are capable of withstanding the ‘fluctuations’ in salinity.

iii. The Freshwater Ecosystem :
The freshwater ecosystem is the smallest aquatic ecosystem. It includes rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. It is divided into two groups – the lentic and lotic. The still water bodies like ponds, lakes, reservoirs, etc., fall under the category of lentic ecosystems, whereas, streams, rivers and flowing water bodies are called lotic ecosystems. The communities of the above two types are called lentic and lotic communities respectively. The study of freshwater ecosystem is called as limnology.

The Terrestrial Ecosystems :
The ecosystems of land are known as terrestrial ecosystems. Some examples of terrestrial ecosystems are the forest, grassland and desert.

i. The forest Ecosystems :
The two important types of forests seen in India are i) tropical rain forest and ii) tropical deciduous forests.

ii. The Grassland Ecosystems :
These are present the Himalayan region in India. They occupy large areas of sandy and saline soils in Western Rajasthan.

iii. Desert Ecosystems :
The areas having less than 25 cm rainfall per year are called desert. They have characteristics flora and fauna. The deserts can be divided into two types – hot type and cold type deserts. Thar Desert in Rajasthan is the example for hot type of desert. Cold type desert is seen in Ladakh.

Artificial Ecosystems :
These are man-made ecosystems such as agricultural or agro-ecosystems. They include cropland ecosystems, aquaculture ponds and aquaria.

Question 6.
Describe different types of food chains that exist in an ecosystem. [March 2019, May 2017 – A.P.; May/June, Mar. 2014] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Energy flows into biological systems (ecosystems) from the Sun. The biological systems of environment include several food levels called trophic levels. A trophic level is composed of those organisms which have the same source of energy and having the same number of steps away from the sun. Thus a plant’s trophic level is one, while that of a herbivore – two, and that of the first level carnivore – three. The second and third levels of the carnivores occupy fourth and fifth trophic levels respectively.

A given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a functional level. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, and a secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms.

The food energy passes from one trophic level to another trophic level mostly from the lower to higher trophic leves. When the ‘path of food energy is ‘linear’, the components resemble the ‘links’ of a chain, and it is called ‘food chain’. Generally a food chain ends with decomposers. The three major types of food chains in an ecosystem are Grazing Food Ghain, Parasitic Food Chain and Detritus Food Chain.

I. Grazing Food Chain (GFC) :
It is also known as predatory food chain. It begins with the green plants (producers) and the second, third and fourth trophic levels are occupied by the herbivores, primary carnivores and secondary carnivores respectively. In some food chains there is yet another trophic level – the climax carnivores. The number of trophic levels in food chains varies from 3 to 5 generally. Some examples for grazing food chain (GFC) are given below.

II. Parasitic food chain :
Some authors included the ‘parasitic Food Chains’ as a part of the GFC. As in the case of GFCs, it also begins with the producers, the plants (directly or indirectly). However, the food energy passes from large organisms to small organisms in the parasitic chains. For instance, a tree which occupies the 1^st trophic level provides shelter and food for many birds. These birds host many ecto-parasites and endo-parasites. Thus, unlike in the predator food chain, the path of the flow of energy includes fewer, large sized organisms in the lower trophic levels, and numerous, small sized organisms in the successive higher trophic levels.

III. Detritus Food Chain :
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter (such as leaf litter, bodies of dead organisms). It is made up of Decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly the ‘fungi’ and ‘bacteria’. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro : to decompose)

Decomposers secrete digestive enzyme that breakdown dead and waste materials (such as faeces) into simple absorbable substances. Some examples of detritus food chains are :

1. Detritus (formed from leaf litter) – Earthworms – Frogs – Snakes.
   Dead animals – Flies and maggots – Frogs – Snakes.

In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major ‘conduit’ for the energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels. Some of the organisms of DFC may form the prey of the GFC animals. For example, in the detritus food chain given above, the earthworms of the DFC may become the food of the birds of the GFC. It is to be understood that food chains are not ‘isolated’ always.

Question 7.
Write an essay on productivity of an ecosystem.
Answer:
The rate of production of biomass is called productivity. It can be divided into primary and secondary productivities.

I. Primary productivity is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a period of time by plants, during photosynthesis. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

a) Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants for their catabolic process (respiration).

b) Net primary productivity Gross primary productivity minus respiratory loss (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP). On average about 20 – 25 percent of GPP is used for the catabolic (respiratory) activity.

GPP – R = NPP
The net primary productivity is the biomass available for the consumption of the heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).

II. Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Question 8.
Give an account of flow of energy in an ecosystem. [March 2015 – A.P.] (T.Q.)
Answer:
Energy Flow :
Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix Sun’s radiant energy to synthesise food from simple inorganic materials. Plants capture only 2-10 percent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire living world. So, it is very important to know how the solar energy captured by plants flows through different organisms of an ecosystem.

All heterotrophs are dependent on the producers for their food, either directly or indirectly. The law of conservation of energy is the first law of thermodynamics. It states that energy may transform from one form into another form, but it is neither created nor destroyed. The energy that reaches earth is balanced by the energy that leaves the surface of the earth as invisible heart radiation.

The energy transfers in an ecosystem are essential for sustaining life. Without energy transfers there could be no life and ecosystems. Living beings are the natural proliferations that depend on the continuous inflow of concentrated energy.

Further, ecosystems are not exempted from the Second Law of thermodynamics. It states that no process involving energy transformation will spontaneously occur unless there is degradation of energy. As per the second law of thermodynamics – the energy dispersed is in the form of unavailable heat energy, and constitutes the entropy (energy lost or not available for work in a system). The organisms need a constant supply of energy to synthesize the molecules they require. The transfer of energy through a food chain is known as energy flow.

A constant input of mostly solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function. The important point to note is that the amount of energy available decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies, it is converted to detritus or dead biomass that serves as a source of energy for the decomposers. Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level, for their energy demands.

Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time, and it is called the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number of organisms per unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight (dry weight is more accurate because water contains no usable energy).

The 10 percent Law :
The 10 percent law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by Lindeman (the Founder of the modern Ecosystem Ecology).

According to this law, during the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next, only about 10 percent of the energy is stored / converted as body mass / biomass. The remaining is lost during the transfer or broken down in catabolic activities (Respiration).

Lindeman’s rule of trophic efficiency /Gross ecological efficiency is one of the earliest and most widely used measures of ecological efficiency. For example, if the NPP (Net primary production) in a plant is 100 kJ, the organic substance converted into body mass of the herbivores which feeds on it is 10 kJ only. Similarly the body mass of the carnivore -1 is 1 kJ only.

Question 9.
List out the major air pollutants and describe their effects on human beings. [March 2018, 17 – A.P.] (T.Q.)
Answer:
The major air pollutants :
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) :
It is produced mainly due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Automobiles are a major cause of CO pollution in larger cities and towns. Automobile exhausts, fumes from factories, emissions from power plants, forest fires and even burning of fire-wood contribute to CO pollution. Haemoglobin has greater affinity for CO and so CO competitively interferes with oxygen transport. Co causes symptoms such as headache and blurred vision at lower concentrations. In higher concentrations, it leads to coma and death.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) :
Carbon dioxide is the main pollutant that is leading to global warming. Plants utilize CO₂ for photosynthesis and all living organisms emit carbon dioxide in the process of respiration. With rapid urbanization, automobiles, aeroplanes, power plants, and other human activities that involve the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline, carbon dioxide is turning out to be an important pollutant of concern.

3. Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) :

It is mainly produced by burning of fossil fuels. Melting of sulphur ores is another important source for SO₂ pollution. Metal smelting and other industrial processes also contribute to SO₂ pollution. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are the major causes of acid rains, which cause acidification of soils, lakes and streams, and also accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments. High concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) can result in breathing problems in asthmatic children and adults. Other effects associated with long – term exposure to sulphur dioxide, include respiratory illness, alterations in the lungs’ defenses and aggravation of existing cardiovascular problems.

To control SO₂ pollution, the emissions are filtered through scrubbers. Scrubbers are devices that are used to clean the impurities in exhaust gases. Gaseous pollutants such as SO₂ are removed by scrubbers.

4. Nitrogen Oxides :
Nitrogen oxides are considered to to be major primary pollutants. The source is mainly automobile exhaust. The air polluted by nitrogen oxides is not only harmful to humans and animals, but also dangerous for the life of plants. Nitrogen oxide pollution also results in acid rains and formation of photochemical smog. The effect of nitrogen oxides on plants include the occurrence of necrotic spots on the surface of leaves. Photosynthesis is affected in crop plants and they yield is reduced. Nitrogen oxides combine with volatile organic compounds by the action of sunlight to form secondary pollutants called Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) which are found especially in photochemical smog. They are powerful irritants to eyes and respiratory tract.

5. Particulate matter/Aerosols :
Tiny particles of solid matter suspended in a gas or liquid constitute the ‘particulate matter’. ‘Aerosols’ refer to particles and / or liquid droplets and the gas together (a system of colloidal particles dispersed in a gas). Combustion of ‘fossil fuels’ (petrol, diesel, etc.,), fly ash produced in thermal plants, forest fires, cement factories, asbestos mining and manufacturing units, spinning and ginning mills etc., are the main sources of particulate matter pollution. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) particles of 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter are highly harmful to man and other air breathing organisms.

Question 10.
What are the causes of water pollution and suggest measures for control of water pollution?
Answer:

Inferior quality of water, caused by pollution of natural waters is a major problem world is facing today. It is posing all the rivers in India are grossly polluted either by sewage or discharge of industrial effluents.

The major water pollutants :
1. Domestic Sewage :
Sewage is the major source of water pollution in large cities and towns. It mainly consists of human and animal excreta and other waste materials. It is usually released into freshwater bodies or sea directly. As per the regulations the sewage has to be passed through treatment plants before it is released into the water courses. Only 0.1 percent of impurities from domestic sewage are making these water sources unfit for human consumption. In the treatment of sewage, solids are easy to remove. Removal of dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates and other nutrients and toxic metal ions and organic compounds is much more difficult. Domestic sewage primarily contains biodegradable organic matter, which will be readily decomposed by the action of bacteria and other microorganisms.

Effect of sewage discharge on some important characteristics of a river
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) :
BOD is measure of the content of biologically degradable substances in sewage. The organic degradable substances are broken-down by microorganisms using oxygen. The demand of oxygen is measured in terms of the oxygen consumed by microorganisms over a period of 5 days (BOD 5) or seven days (BOD 7). BOD forms an index for measuring pollution load in the sewage. Microorganisms involved in biodegradation of organic matter in water bodies consume a lot of oxygen, and as a result there is a sharp decline in dissolved oxygen causing death offish and other aquatic animals.

Algal blooms :
Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes excessive growth of planktonic algae and the phenomenon is commonly called ‘algal blooms’. Algal blooms impart distinct colour to the water bodies and deteriorate the quality of water. It also causes mortality of fish. Some algae which are involved in algal blooms are toxic to human beings and animals.

Excessive growth of aquatic plants such as the common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), the world’s most problematic aquatic weed which is also called ‘Terror of Bengal’ causes blocks in our water ways. They grow faster than our ability to remove them. They grow abundantly in eutrophic water bodies (water bodies rich in nutrients) and lead to imbalance in the ecosystem dynamics of the water body.

Sewage arising from homes and hospitals may contain undesirable pathogenic microorganisms. If it is released untreated into water resources, there is a likelihood of outbreak of serious diseases, such as dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera etc.

2. Industrial Effluents :
Untreated industrial effluents released into water bodies pollute most of the rivers, fresh water streams, etc. Effluents contain a wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants such as oils, greases, plastics, metallic wastes, suspended solids and toxins. Most of them are non-degradable. Arsenic, Cadmium, Copper, Chromium, Mercury, Zinc, and Nickel are the common heavy metals discharged from industries.

Effects :
Organic substances present in the water deplete the dissolved oxygen content in water by increasing the BOD (Biological oxygen demand) and COD (Chemical oxygen demand). Most of the inorganic substances render the water unfit for drinking. Outbreaks of dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera etc., are caused by sewage pollution.

b) Biomagnification :
Increase in the concentration of the pollutant or toxicant at successive trophic levels in an aquatic food chain is called Biological Magnification or Bio – magnification. This happens in the instances where a toxic substance accumulated by an organism is not metabolized or excreted and thus passes on to the next higher trophic level. This phenomenon is well known regarding DDT and mercury pollution.

As shown in the above example, the concentration of DDT is increased at successive trophic levels starting at a very low concentration of 0.003 ppb (ppb – parts per billion) in water, which ultimately reached an alarmingly high concentration of 25 ppm (ppm – parts per million) in fish-eating birds, through bio-magnification. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking, eventually causing decline in bird populations.

Eutrophication :
Natural ageing of a lake by nutrient enrichment of its water is known as eutrophication. In a young lake, the water is cold and clear, supporting little life. Gradually nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are carried into the lake via streams, in course of time. This encourages the growth of aquatic algae and other plants. Consequently the animal life proliferates, and organic matter gets deposited on the bottom of the lake. Over centuries, as silt and organic debris piles up, the lake grows shallower and warmer. As a result, the aquatic organisms thriving in the cold environment are gradually replaced by warm-water organisms. Marsh plants appear by taking root in the shallow regions of the lake. Eventually, the lake gives way to large masses of floating plants (bog) and finally converted into land.

Depending upon the climatic conditions, size of the lake and other factors, the natural ageing of a lake may span thousands of years. However, pollutants from human ativity (anthropogenic) radically accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon is called ‘Cultural or Accelerated eutrophication’.

During the past century, lakes in many parts of the earth have been severey eutrophied by sewage, agricultural and industrial wastes. The prime contaminants are nitrates and phosphates, which are the ’chief plant nutrients’. The dissolved oxygen which is vital to other aquatic clife is depleted. At the same time, other pollutants flowing into the lake may poison the whole population of fish, whose decomposing remains further deplete the dissolved oxygen content in the water.

Thermal pollution :
Water is used as a coolant in Thermal power plants and other industries. Hot water flowing out of industries also constitute an important category of pollutants. Thermal waste water eliminates sensitive organisms (Stenothermal organisms such as fish – especially the juveniles) downstream and may enhance the growth of plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing damage to the indigenous flora and fauna.

Ecological Sanitation – ’Ecosan Toilets’ :
Generally it is assumed that removal of wastes requires water, which means creation of sewage. If water is not used to dispose off human waste like excreta, and if one didn’t have to flush the tiolet after its use, a large amount of water can be saved. This is already a reality. Ecological sanitation is a substainable system for handling human excreta, using ‘dry composting toilets’. This is a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal. The key point to note here is that, with this composting method, human excreta can be recycled into a resource (as natural fertiliser), which reduces the need for chemical fertilizers. ‘EcoSan’ toilets are in use in many parts of Kerala and Sri Lanka.

Question 11.
Write an essay on soil pollution and measures to control soil pollution.
Answer:
Solid Wastes :
Any thing (substance/ material / articles / goods) that is thrown out as waste in solid form is referred to as solid waste. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices, institutions, shops, hotels, restaurants etc., in towns and cities.

The municipal solid wastes generally consist of paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc. The wastes are burnt to reduce the volume of the wastes. But generally wastes are not completely burnt and left as open dumps which often serve as the breeding grounds for rats and flies. As the substitute for open-burning dumps, sanitary landfills are adopted. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and covered landfill, wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and covered with dirt everyday. These is a danger of seepage of chemicals and pollutants from these landfills, which may contaminate the underground water resources.

The best solution is to develop awareness in the society on these environmental issues. All wastes that we generate can be categorized into three types (a) biodegradable, (b) recyclable and (c) non-biodegradable. It is important that all garbage generated should be sorted out category wise. The reusable or recyclable material has to be separated out and utilised. (Rag-pickers in the streets are doing a great job of separation of materials for recycling.) The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in the ground and be left for natural breakdown. The remaining non-biodegradable waste left over is to be disposed off properly.

The prime goal should be to reduce our garbage generation. But we are increasing the use of non-biodegradable products. We are packaging products of our daily use such as milk and water also in polythene bags. In cities and towns, many purchased things are packed in polystyrene and plastic packets. Thus we are contributing heavily to environmental pollution. State Governments across the country are trying to educate people on the reduction in use of plastic and use of eco-friendly packaging. We can do our bit by using carry-bags made of cloth or other natural fibres when we go for shopping and by refusing polythene bags.

i) Hospital wastes :
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants, harmful chemicals and also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. The use of incinerators (to burn wastes) is essential for disposal of hospital waste.

ii) Electronic wastes (e-wastes) :
Irreparable computers and other electronic goods constitute the modern day pollutants called electronic wastes (e-wastes), e – wastes are buried in landfills or incinerated. Over half of the e-wastes generated in the developed world are exported to developing countries, mainly to China, India and Pakistan, where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered during recycling process.

Unlike developed countries, which have specifically built facilities for recycling of e-wastes, recycling in developing countries often involves manual participation thus exposing workers to toxic substances present in e – wastes. Eventually recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e – wastes provided it is carried out in an environmental friendly manner.

iii) Agro – chemicals and their effects :
In the wake of the Green Revoltuion, use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides has increased many times, for enhancing crop production. Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc., are being increasingly used. They are also toxic to non-target organisms such as earthworms, nitrogen fixing bacteria, etc., that are important components of soil eco-system. Moreover due to bio-magnification, the harmful chemicals pose a great threat to human health. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers will lead to increased drain of nutrients into the nearby aquatic ecosystems causing eutrophication and the consequent effects.

iv) Radioactive wastes :
Initially, nuclear energy was hailed as a non-polluting way for generating electricity. Later on, it was realised that the use of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems. The first is accidental leakages, as occurred in the Three Mile Island (USA) and Chernobyl (Russia) and the second is the safe disposal of radioactive wastes.

Radiation, that is released from nuclear waste is extremely dangerous to biological organisms, because it induces mutations. Exposure to high doses of nuclear radiation is lethal as it can lead to cancers (e.g. leukemia). Therefore, nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant and has to be dealt with utmost caution. Storage of nuclear wastes should be done in suitably shielded containers and buried deep in the soil or oceans (about 500 meters). Even when done so, geological upheavals can bring them up, some day and cause radiation.